The Emergence of the Modern East African Nations 1900 -1963
The Mau - Mau Uprising 1954
ACTIVITIES
Introduction
MAU-MAU movement
Effects of MAU-MAU rebellion
THE EMERGENCE OF THE MODERN EAST AFRICAN NATIONS 1900 - 1963
The Mau - Mau Uprising 1954
Mau-Mau was an underground political movement (uprising) organized by the people of Kenya against colonial rule from 1951-60 under leaders such as Jomo Kenyata, Dedan Kimathi, Waruhiu Itote popularly known as General China and Tom Mboya etc.
The movement was precipitated by the returning African soldiers after the Second World War who were politically aware. It was an attempt by the Africans to change the system of economic and social injustice which had become a marked feature in Kenya. They were all directed towards achieving their independence.
The Mau-Mau uprising presents an example of African efforts to fight for their rights after realizing that were oppressed in their own country. It is also an indication that Africans were politically aware and determined to shape their destiny.
Objectives
At the end of the topic students should be able to:
1. Explain the background of the Mau-Mau up rising
2. Explain the causes of the uprising
3. Describe the course or stages of the uprising
4. State reasons why the rising took long to end (1951-1960)
5. Explain why the uprising was suppressed
6. Explain government measures to contain the uprising
7. State the effects of the uprising
Key concepts to emphasize by the teacher
The teacher should have advance knowledge on the following:
1. Other rebellions
2. The second world war
3. Where the rising took place
4. The leaders of the rising
5. Why their was that rising
6. Other current uprisings
Teaching and learning aids/materials
Photographs of the Mau-Mau leaders (Were and Wilson pg 189-191)
A Sketch map of Kenya showing the area where Mau Mau was carried out.
Teacher’s Guide
Additional notes and textbooks like
1. Were and Wilson East Africa through a thousand years,
2. Odhiambo A history of East Africa and
3. The Trial of Dedan Kimathi etc
Guiding questions
1a) What were the causes of the Mau-Mau uprising in Kenya in 1954.
b) Why was it difficult to suppress by the Europeans?
2a) Describe the course of the Mau-Mau uprising
b) Explain why the uprising was later suppressed by the Europeans.
3 a) What were the measures taken by government to suppress the uprising.
b) Outline the effects of the uprising.
THE MAU-MAU REBELLION 1951 - 60
This was a Kenyan underground political movement that aimed at saving Kenya from British colonial rule. Mau-Mau is an abbreviation which stands for “Mzungu Arudi Ulaya, Mwafirika Apate Uhuru” ( meaning let the white man go back to Europe and the Africans regain Independence)
It was a rebellion organized by the people of Kenya against colonial administration from 1951-60 under leaders such as Jomo Kenyatta, Dedan Kimathi, Waruhiu Itote popularly known as General China.
Mau Mau was an underground movement comprising of extreme African Nationalists with in the newly formed Kenya African Union and the second world war ex-service men. The movement was originally dominated by the Kikuyu but were later joined by other tribes.
Ritual oathing was a crucial component of Mau Mau participation, as they called on the old God - Ngai - to witness the oath that people would swear to be united in their fight against the colonial enemy, and would take back the land that the white man had stolen. Jacob Njangi, a former fighter, explained:
"We used to drink the oath. We swore we would not let white men rule us forever. We would fight them even down to our last man, so that man could live in freedom."
Kikuyu women taking a Mau Mau oathThe oaths were a cultural symbol of the solidarity that bound Kikuyu men, women and children together in their opposition to the colonial government. But they were also feared, as the taboos that traditionally surrounded the breaking of oaths were still very much current. Those who took the Mau Mau oaths were taught that their violation would be instantly lethal, and in practise it was indeed so: not because of the wrath of Ngai, but because of bloody reprisals by the Mau Mau themselves, for whom refusing to take the oath was the same as siding with the colonial regime.
Nonetheless, the British were scared by the oath, for they knew full well that for the Kikuyu (or any other Kenyan, in fact), an oath was a deadly serious matter, and could never be broken. As a result, the British made taking the Mau Mau oath a capital offence. Between 1953 and 1956 more than 1,000 Africans were publicly hanged for alleged Mau Mau crimes - in Britain, public hangings had been outlawed for over a century.
The British also screened Mau Mau suspects and forced them to take a 'cleansing oath', a strange instance of colonialism 'gone native'. Concocted by the anthropologist Louis Leakey and rich Kikuyu landowners who stood to lose their British-granted privileges if independence came to be, the Kikuyu were to swear upon githathi (sacred stones) for a reversal of the Mau Mau oath.
Many, of course, refused, so alternative means had to be found to 'convince' people to abandon their oaths. John Nottingham, a district officer in the colonial service from 1952 to 1961, explains, "The way that it worked out was that if you beat them up enough then they would confess an oath. So what you do is beat them up and then you give them a bit of paper and a piece of blunt pencil and say, 'Confess! I took it! I took it! I took it!' You are now a human being again."
Ironically, this was probably the first time that any of the suspects had ever been called 'human beings' by the wazungu.
The Mau Mau operation was guided by Oath. The fighters bound their core membership with a sacred oath of secrecy. Violation of the oath meant an automatic death to the offender. The blacks aimed at sending away the whites and achieving their independence. They were so committed to this fundamental cause that each member took the traditional oath. To this oath, one was obliged to shed his or her blood for the sake of others and above all the future prosperity of all.
THE MAU-MAU REBELLION 1951 - 60
This was a Kenyan underground political movement that aimed at saving Kenya from British colonial rule. Mau-Mau is an abbreviation which stands for “Mzungu Arudi Ulaya, Mwafirika Apate Uhuru” ( meaning let the white man go back to Europe and the Africans regain Independence)
It was a rebellion organized by the people of Kenya against colonial administration from 1951-60 under leaders such as Jomo Kenyatta, Dedan Kimathi, Waruhiu Itote popularly known as General China.
Mau Mau was an underground movement comprising of extreme African Nationalists with in the newly formed Kenya African Union and the second world war ex-service men. The movement was originally dominated by the Kikuyu but were later joined by other tribes. The Mau Mau operation was guided by Oath. The fighters bound their core membership with a sacred oath of secrecy. Violation of the oath meant an automatic death to the offender. The blacks aimed at sending away the whites and achieving their independence. They were so committed to this fundamental cause that each member took the traditional oath. To this oath, one was obliged to shed his or her blood for the sake of others and above all the future prosperity of all.
CAUSES OF THE MAU-MAU REBELLION
* It was due to unemployment of the ex-soldiers who had been promised jobs after the World War II, but instead were made porters on European-estates. Similarly, people were retrenched, traders pushed out to business by Asian retail trade monopoly and European settlers. Therefore by 1952 the young energetic African went to the forests of Abadare and Mountain Kenya Rift Valley and waged a violent offensive against the British hoping for a change.
* Africans wanted their land especially the Kikuyu who had been displaced from the fertile Kenya highlands. The European had used the support of the colonial government to take away land including the ancestral land to which they attached great value. Many were pushed into reserves and camps were they suffered from congestion, starvation and diseases like typhoid, cholera.
* It was a reaction against the Kipande system. This was a method of identity cards imposed on Africans to restrict them from unnecessary movements. The kipande system required moving with a ‘PASS’ which was big a metallic card carried in the neck of the African.
* The introduction of racial discrimination in Kenya. This was discrimination according to colour. The Europeans equated the black colour with low intelligence, uncivilized, barbaric and a backward race. All the best hotels, restaurants, schools, recreational centres and most fertile soils in Kenya were reserved for the whites only.
* Africans were fed up of heavy and harsh taxation by the Europeans. Failure to pay tax was punishable by taking away the land or even imprisonment. So the Africans were forced to go and work under harsh condition and for long hours, yet poorly paid. This forced them to join the uprising.
* The dominance of the economy by the Asian and white settlers. The Africans were not allowed to take part in meaningful business, were not given positive consideration in awarding jobs. The whites upheld the view that blacks were only fit to work as Shamba boys on the colonial farms or maids in the European and Asian homes. To this end, the Africans revolted so as to change the situation for the better.
* They also wanted to be exposed to the social services e.g. education. The white settlers feared the educated Africans for losing their white color jobs in the government as well as losing unskilled African labour on their farms. In this respect they discouraged African education. In so doing, they worked to frustrate the African efforts to set up schools even the few educated Africans were not employed in the civil service. So these unemployed Africans fought for the preservation of their right as an educated class.
* Africans feared a gradual destruction of their culture by the whites e.g. the missionaries were totally against the circumcision of women among the Kikuyu and the traditional view of twins.
* Africans wanted a fair share in the administration of their country (Parliament). For a long time many Kenyans were excluded from decision making and political participation the whites and Asians in the Legislative Council did not represent their interests.
* The return of Jomo Kenyatta in the 1950s’ after his studies in Europe, he came back with a wider vision in politics after participating in various conferences(Manchester conference of 1945) therefore this made enabled him convince the Kenyans about their rights and they therefore united and rebelled.
* The role of educated Kenyans ;this group of people by nature of their education became aware of their rights as citizens of Kenya and it is along that they started campaigns of educating the people about their place in society. This prompted them to rebel against the whites.
* The colonial policy discouraged Africans from growing cash crops like coffee, tea, cotton, pyrethrum for fear of competition with the Africans. They feared that they would grow rich and challenge the colonial administration. This led to too much poverty so they joined the rebellion hoping to find a solution.
* Forced labour on white man’s plantations led to Mau Mau: Africans were obliged by colonial law to offer labour on the plantation this was to be done forcefully with out offering any payments. This kind of new slavery inspired the occurrence of the Mau Mau rebellion as the first violent revolt against the British after World War II.
* Influence of the Second World War many Kenyans who participated in this war discovered the weakness of the white man and the loopholes in their systems of administration. These included General China, Didan Kimathi among others. These people had acquired good military skills, enjoyed high standards of living, realized that some Africans were braver then some whites. These joined together with the unemployed Kenyans with a hope of gaining their Independence.
EFFECTS/RESULTS OF THE MAU-MAU RISING
* Many people lost their lives which led to depopulation. 100 Europeans and 2000 Pro-British Africans lost their lives. Over 10,000 energetic men were killed and this massive loss of productive labor led to economic decline in Kenya after 1956.
* The Kenyans were allowed to participate in the Legislative council in large numbers. In 1958, a constitution (Lennox) was drawn which provided for 15 members of African representation to the council and therefore members like Arap Moi ,Oginga Odinga ,Tom Mboya joined the legislative council who became influential in the independence struggle.
* Kenyans became involved in various economic activities as equal partners from which they had been excluded .They were allowed to grow profitable crops like coffee, tea, cotton from which they obtained profits and improved their standards of living.
* It led to the formation of political parties. Due to the increased constitutional reforms and increased education, African elite emerged and these formed strong political parties which included Kenya African National Union. (KANU) Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU). These parties strongly advocated for Kenyan Independence.
* It led to the leaders of the Mau-Mau and many people being arrested and detained in prison for a long time hence their suffering and misery for example Jomo Kenyatta detained for seven years and Dedan Kimathi.
* The activities of the Mau Mau uprising put pressure on the colonial government to the extent that Kenya got her independence in 1963. The colonial government was forced to undertake social, economic as well as political reforms. In 1958, constitutional reforms were adopted which quickened the way to multi-racial form of government in Kenya. For the first time the Africans were included in the local and national politics in Kenya.
* The uprising led to the exodus of many white settlers in Kenya and the plans to make Kenya a white man’s country became futile. After 1956, all parts that were racially restricted were made open to all races including the Kenyan highlands.
* Farms were destroyed which led to food shortage in the area. There was massive destruction of the food stores, granaries and burning of fields and yet people were confined in camps and reserves. These became congested and over crowded with no land for agriculture. The political instability destabilized the agricultural development in Kenya.
* The war was costly to both Britain and Kenya. Britain. For example it’s estimated that the British Government spent over 50million pounds on buying auxiliary weapons and financing the war. In addition there was loss of business and therefore money since trade was paralyzed. Administrative centers, churches, farm machinery worth millions of pounds were also destroyed.
* The colonial administration was forced to with draw the foreign labour policy and many Kenyans began looking for jobs in their own country reducing the Asian domination of the commercial and retail sectors.
* The removal of Kikuyu leaders gave an opportunity to other leaders to rise up, example, Tom Mboya, Oginga Odinga etc. These worked to sensitize the Africans to fight on and intensify the massive destruction of property that belonged to the British, Asian retail shops were frequently looted. This created economic pain that forced the British subdue to the African cry for independence by promising quick constitutional transformation.
* The whites accepted that a multi-racial society was the only solution and each race had to accept peaceful existence with one another. Equality of races was witnessed in schools, agriculture and government especially the ministerial ranks. The exclusive white occupation and settlement of Kenya highlands was abolished. In this respect the Mau Mau achieved the objective of its leaders i.e. Equal treatment of races.
* Mau Mau rebellion affected the settlement patterns of the kikuyu: Small and protected villages were created by the government as a means of separating civilians from guerillas (fighters).A total of 80,000 Kikuyu men, women and children were confined in detention camps. The 1952 state of emergency forced the kikuyu to live in the protected villages together instead of the formerly scattered settlement. This later enabled easy provision of schools, health services, and market services to the people.
* It led to the release of political prisoners .For instance in August 1961 Mzee Jomo Kenyatta was released, elected to Legislative Assembly and made president of Kenya African National Union (KANU).Similarly, 173 prisoners who were released by rebels during the height of the Mau Mau uprising.
* Increased Africanisation of Kenya’s educational system, Africans were allowed to access good quality education similar to that of the white settlers. Many were admitted in public schools, more schools for the African children were constructed even in the rural areas. Further still African children were given priority on scholarship awarded by the government which never happened before.
In conclusion, the British were quick to hand over power to Africans i.e. Ghana 1957, Tanganyika (Tanzania) 9/12/1961, Uganda 9/10/1962, Kenya 12/12/1963. This was done so as to avoid worse embarrassment and bloodshed as the case was with the Mau Mau in Kenya.
Wednesday, June 17, 2009
NGONI MIGRATION
HISTORY
The GROWTH OF EXTERNAL CONTACTS AND PRESSURES
NGONI MIGRATION
ACTIVITIES
Introduction
Ngoni in East Africa
Ngoni from South Africa
THE NGONI MIGRATIONS AND SETTLEMENT IN EAST AFRICA
Who were the Ngoni?
The Ngoni were Bantu-Nguni speaking people of Northern Zululand in South East Africa. They were originally Ndwandwe people under Zwides leadership. But when Shaka defeated Zwide, one part of his group, the Ngoni moved to East Africa under Zwangendaba.
In origin, the Ngoni, were close relatives of the Zulu. They were full- time warriors and cattle plunderers hence disliked by other tribes, so they forced them away. They were pushed further north and eventually reached southern Tanzania.
They were forced out of South Africa by the “Mfecane” wars led by Shaka the Zulu. They came to be known as the Ngoni having absorbed the Thonga, Shona and Cewa on their way to East Africa.
The Ngoni migration began among the Bantu peoples of South Africa, who entered into E. Africa in the 1840’s. They were the last Bantu migrants to come to East Africa. They migrated into two largest groups of the Maseko and Tuta Ngoni.
The Ngoni broke the Monomotapa Kingdom, settling respectively on the eastern side of Lake Nyasa (Malawi) at Songea, and on Ufipa plateau.
They moved to Tanzania from Natal and Swaziland between 1820 and 1840 due to the Mfecane (time of trouble). They are direct descendants of the Zulu. They are currently settled in South West Tanzania around Songea town.
The Ngoni invasion illustrates the influence of external forces on the lives of the indigenous people. The Ngoni brought innovation and changes such as military techniques, skill and weapons. A study of the Ngoni would enable students appreciate the current settlement patterns and way of the life of the people of Southern Tanzania.
Objectives
The end of the topic students should be able to:
1.
Describe who the Ngoni were and identify the area where they came from
2.
Explain the reasons why they migrated
3.
Describe the course of their movement and settlement
4.
State why they were able to defeat the inhabitant of Southern Tanzania
5.
Explain the effects of their migration on the people of East Africa.
Reasons for the Ngoni migration
1.
It was due to fear of being absorbed into the empire of tyrant Shaka.
The Ngoni migrated due to the tyrannical and dictatorial rule of Shaka, the Zulu ruler who was everything in his kingdom. His cruelty was shown when he lost his mother, and put people under severe signs of mourning. Those who refused to cry for his mother’s death were killed,so they decided to seek refuge by migrating to other areas.
2.
They moved because of external pressure from the British and the Boers in the South who were moving northwards occupying their land.
3.
It was due to over population, which was caused by the fertility of soils and reliability of rainfall between Drakensberg Mountains and the Indian Ocean.
4.
Due to overpopulation there was land shortage hence land disputes, which led to forcing them to migrate to other areas.
5.
Some owned large herds of cattle hence moved northwards looking for pasture and water for their animals. So, they wanted to look for more fertile land for grazing their cattle.
6.
It was also due to epidemic diseases such as smallpox and sleeping sickness that affected them.
7.
They could have moved because of famine and drought that led to lack of food and water.
8.
It was because of influence of men like Zwangendaba, Maputo and Zulugama who provided good leadership. This encouraged them to move on wards.
9.
They migrated because of the spirit for Adventure.(Need to see what was beyond them).
10.
The leaders wanted to take over power in the areas they defeated, which was not acceptable to Shaka forcing some groups to migrate to other areas.
11.
They were fed up with the old traditional political system, which encouraged dictatorship and therefore wanted change, which could be achieved through migration.
12.
It could also have been due to overstocking of their animals. They migrated due to their spirit of cattle rustling, i.e they had great desire to steal other people’s cattle. For example, they went on driving away and confiscating other people’s cattle during their conquest and expansionist wars.
13.
They migrated due to the increased knowledge of military tactics by the age regiments. These were powerful military forces and dedicated to professional war, which was their livelihood. They believed that they could other territories through migration.
The GROWTH OF EXTERNAL CONTACTS AND PRESSURES
NGONI MIGRATION
ACTIVITIES
Introduction
Ngoni in East Africa
Ngoni from South Africa
The Ngoni Migration
In twenty years they travelled over a thousand miles.
In 1818 the Nguni started to fight among themselves for land and power. Different people wanted to be in charge. It led to the Zulu Wars. They fought each other for power. The ones that lost the the battles were forced to leave the Zulu lands. This was the start of a long migration to find somewhere else to live.
Zwangendaba was one of the defeated leaders. He fled north after his defeat in 1819. Zwangendaba's followers started to use the name Ngoni. Over the next 20 years they had to find ways to survive. How could they get food to eat? One way was to steal food and cattle from villages they came across. They killed people who tried to stop them. As you can imagine, they were disliked by the tribes they stole from. None of the other tribes wanted the Ngoni to live near them, so they forced them away. Each time the Ngoni were pushed further and further north. Until, eventually, they reached Southern Tanzania.
Not much was written about the Mfecane. What we know is from the diaries of missionaries and travellers from Europe, and from the stories passed down from generation to generation.
Shaka and the Zulu Wars
It all started with troubles in South Africa. They began at the start of the 19th century, around 1800. At this time the Zulu kingdom was led by a powerful warrior called Shaka (or Tchaka). The Zulus became rich and defeated many other tribes.
Zwangendaba
Ngoni Fighting Methods
As they moved north they came into conflict. They fought the other groups who were living on the lands they crossed. Because they knew Zulu fighting methods the Ngoni could usually defeat groups that opposed them. The Zulu warriors were well trained. They planned how they were going to fight their battles. Their trick was to try and surround their enemy. They went forward to battle in a horn formation and closed around their enemy. They used assegais,which were short stabbing spears and they were trained in man-to-man fighting. Most other tribes used throwing spears. Often the Ngoni would make a mock charge, get their opponents to throw their spears and then stab them with their assegais. After the battles they would force the young men to join their army and take young girls for wives. Other people, including the old people, were often killed.
The Ngoni specialised in fighting. That was all they knew. They could not produce their own food. They had to keep moving to find new villages they could plunder. The king of the Fipa people, who lived in that area, made peace with the Ngoni. This saved his kingdom from being destroyed. Zwangendaba built his own capital called Mapupo, which means "dreams". For two more years they raided neighbouring people, the Sukuma and Msafwa, to get food and cattle. Then they settled down with their animals and families, and started to grow crops.
Break up of the Ngoni
Zwangendaba died in Mapupo in 1845. He was buried in an ox hide at Chapota, near the Nyinaluzi River. He fled from the Zulu Wars in South Africa. But he spent the rest of his life fighting other tribes for survival. He was a great warrior and leader.
After Zwangendaba's death his family fought over who should succeed him. His group divided in two. Then each of these groups split up. In the end there were 5 separate groups. Three went back to cattle raiding, in Malawi and Zambia. Two groups went north as far as Lake Victoria. There they found Arabs who were taking local people as slaves.
Effects of the Ngoni migration and the Mkecane
The Ngoni migration and mfecane caused trouble for 20 years, in central and east Africa. Thousands of people were killed by the Ngoni. Villages were destroyed and people were forced offtheir land. Many of them starved due to the lack of food.
The main problem was that the Ngoni knew only one way of life and that was fighting. The only way they could feed themselves was to plunder and kill. They even sold many of the people they captured to slave traders. This caused more misery throughout East Africa.
Eventually the groups the Ngoni fought banded together for protection. One of the Sangu chieftains, Mwakawangu, united the people to defeat the Ngoni invaders. This gave the Sangu control of the rich, farming area of the Southern Highlands. Other groups also realised that they had to be strong to protect their livelihoods.
TASK 1: Ngoni Time Line
Make a list of the important dates between 1800 and 1845 and write down what happened at each date:
Ngoni time line
1800 Shaka ruled the Zulu kingdom in South Africa
1818 The Zulu Wars
1819
TASK 2: The Story of a Ngoni Warrior
Imagine you were a young warrior with Zangendaba.
You had been defeated in the Zulu wars and forced to leave your home.
Write a story to describe how you think you would have:
*
felt on your long journey of 1000 miles from the Zulu lands of South Africa to Southern Tanzania
*
what problems you would have faced and what dangers?
*
what was your daily life like and how did you survive?
*
why would you have been happy to settle down after 20 years of fighting and walking?
*
what you thought of your new home in Southern Tanzania, where there was good land and food and peace at last!
The Zulu and the Mfecane
The Zulu
The Zulu peoples were an important tribe in South Africa in the late 18th century (around 1790). They lived around the areas called Natal today. There were many small groups of Nguni, which was the old name for the Zulu. The groups lived separately and were not organised under one leader.
The Zulu were cattle herders but they also grew some crops. They came into contact with Portuguese farmers living in Mozambique. The Portuguese grew maize, which they brought to Africa from the Americas. Maize was a good crop to grow, because it produced more food from the same area of land. The Zulu also started to grow maize. This gave them more food and allowed Zululand to support more people. The Zulu became better fed and stronger and their population increased greatly.
Shaka Zulu
Shaka Zulu was the leader of one of the smaller Zulu chiefdoms. Because there was plenty of food he was able to have an army. The food for the warriors was provided by others. This allowed them to be a full-time army. They developed better weapons. One of these was the assegai, a short stabbing spear. The assegai was feared by enemies. Using his well-trained warriors Shaka took over neighbouring lands.
The Tribute System
He force other tribes to pay him tributes in exchange for protection. The tributes were gifts. They included cattle, furs, feathers, and carved wooden sculptures. He took control of all the precious metals. At this time they were copper and brass. The metal was used to make wooden clubs stronger. It was also used for ornaments, like neck rings and armbands. The more of these you had, the greater your importance in the tribe.
Drought and Crop Failure
The problems for the Zulu started after 1800. By then most of the good land was being used. As the population grew, the extra people had to fight for land in order to survive. Things were made worse by 10 years with much less rain. The period of drought meant that crops failed. This led to food shortages.
The Zulu Wars
The Zulu started to fight among themselves for land and water. This led to the Zulu Wars from about 1815 to 1820. Many people were killed and many others were forced off the land. The survivors had to move out of Zululand.
The Mfecane
This led to the great migration called the "Mfecane", which meant the "great scattering" . The Mfecane lasted from 1815 to 1840. The people could not move south, because the Dutch settlers had lived there since the 17th century. They could not move east because Portuguese farmers were there and there were also slave traders. So they moved north toward East Africa.
Zangendaba led the Ngoni group that made their way north as far as Southern Tanzania. This was what we now call the Ngoni migration.
TASK 1: Notes and pictures
Make some notes and pictures to explain:
1. Why the Zulu became important at the start of the 19th century.
2. Why they started to fight among themsleves in the Zulu Wars.
The Ngoni Migration
Do this when you have studied the whole topic of the Ngoni migration.
Make a list of the reasons why the Ngoni migrated from South Africa to Southern Tanzania.
What were the things that caused them to leave South Africa.
Why were they happy to settle in Southern Tanzania 20 years later?
The Ngoni and the Zulu
(1) Where the Ngoni live
The Wagoni are Bantu people. They live in south-west Tanzania.
They live in over 100 villages around the town of Songea.
(2) Their Zulu origins
The Wagoni have a strong story-telling tradition. Their elders tell stories about the tribe to the younger generation.
They are called "Hearing Tales". They are repeated often so the young can learn the stories. They then pass them on to their children.
This is how the history of the tribe is passed on from one generation to the next.
According to these "Hearing Tales" the Ngoni believe that the tribe is related to the Zulu.
Their stories tell of how they migrated to Tanzania from South Africa, from the area between Natal and Swaziland.
There are 12 branches of the Ngoni tribe. Other groups are in Northern Malawi, Eastern Zambia, Southern Zimbabwe and Mozambique.
(3) How the Ngoni are like the Zulu
The Ngoni in Southern Tanzania have a lot in common with other Ngoni groups and with the Zulu of South Africa.
1. Settlements. Their villages have a similar design.
Ngoni villages are built around the cattle enclosure. This is called a kraal. It is made from thorn bushes, to keep out wild animals. Cattle are the Ngoni's wealth. When they eat cow's meat they believe they are sharing with their dead ancestors.
The important buildings in a Ngoni village are the houses of the clan head, his chief wife and the hut for the boys. In the boys' hut they are trained in the Ngoni traditions. They also learn to hunt.
There is a separate area where the men of the village talk. The huts of other people are spread around the kraal. You can see from this that protecting the cattle is very important to the Ngoni. They also have some fields where they grow food crops. This settlement pattern is found in all the Ngoni groups as well as in traditional Zulu society. Below is a picture of the Ngoni men sitting inside the kraal.
2. Customs and rituals. As well as having similar settlements the Ngoni and the Zulu had similar customs and rituals.
a. Girls had initiation ceremonies where they are given sex education, taught family planning and house management.
b. Boys had similar circumcision ceremonies and they were taught to hunt, other skills, tribal beliefs and some were taught witchcraft.
c. Both boys and girls were taught the arts of painting, modelling and crafts.
d. The groups had similar traditional dances, which date back to their warrior past.
3. Language. They share many common words in their languages.
(But the languages of each group have merged with the languages of the people they live near, so they cannot any longer speak to each other in a common Ngoni language.)
4. Ngoni and Nguni. The Zulu belong to a group of tribes that are called the "Nguni" in South Africa. This is a very similar name to Ngoni, and another reason why many Ngoni believe they are related to the Zulu.
Please Note: The way of life of the Ngoni in East Africa and the Zulu of South Africa are similar. They could be related to the Zulu. On the other hand, they may have just picked up their customs after being conquered by the Zulu.
QUESTION
Do you believe that the Ngoni are related to the Zulu? Explain why.
The GROWTH OF EXTERNAL CONTACTS AND PRESSURES
NGONI MIGRATION
ACTIVITIES
Introduction
Ngoni in East Africa
Ngoni from South Africa
THE NGONI MIGRATIONS AND SETTLEMENT IN EAST AFRICA
Who were the Ngoni?
The Ngoni were Bantu-Nguni speaking people of Northern Zululand in South East Africa. They were originally Ndwandwe people under Zwides leadership. But when Shaka defeated Zwide, one part of his group, the Ngoni moved to East Africa under Zwangendaba.
In origin, the Ngoni, were close relatives of the Zulu. They were full- time warriors and cattle plunderers hence disliked by other tribes, so they forced them away. They were pushed further north and eventually reached southern Tanzania.
They were forced out of South Africa by the “Mfecane” wars led by Shaka the Zulu. They came to be known as the Ngoni having absorbed the Thonga, Shona and Cewa on their way to East Africa.
The Ngoni migration began among the Bantu peoples of South Africa, who entered into E. Africa in the 1840’s. They were the last Bantu migrants to come to East Africa. They migrated into two largest groups of the Maseko and Tuta Ngoni.
The Ngoni broke the Monomotapa Kingdom, settling respectively on the eastern side of Lake Nyasa (Malawi) at Songea, and on Ufipa plateau.
They moved to Tanzania from Natal and Swaziland between 1820 and 1840 due to the Mfecane (time of trouble). They are direct descendants of the Zulu. They are currently settled in South West Tanzania around Songea town.
The Ngoni invasion illustrates the influence of external forces on the lives of the indigenous people. The Ngoni brought innovation and changes such as military techniques, skill and weapons. A study of the Ngoni would enable students appreciate the current settlement patterns and way of the life of the people of Southern Tanzania.
Objectives
The end of the topic students should be able to:
1.
Describe who the Ngoni were and identify the area where they came from
2.
Explain the reasons why they migrated
3.
Describe the course of their movement and settlement
4.
State why they were able to defeat the inhabitant of Southern Tanzania
5.
Explain the effects of their migration on the people of East Africa.
Reasons for the Ngoni migration
1.
It was due to fear of being absorbed into the empire of tyrant Shaka.
The Ngoni migrated due to the tyrannical and dictatorial rule of Shaka, the Zulu ruler who was everything in his kingdom. His cruelty was shown when he lost his mother, and put people under severe signs of mourning. Those who refused to cry for his mother’s death were killed,so they decided to seek refuge by migrating to other areas.
2.
They moved because of external pressure from the British and the Boers in the South who were moving northwards occupying their land.
3.
It was due to over population, which was caused by the fertility of soils and reliability of rainfall between Drakensberg Mountains and the Indian Ocean.
4.
Due to overpopulation there was land shortage hence land disputes, which led to forcing them to migrate to other areas.
5.
Some owned large herds of cattle hence moved northwards looking for pasture and water for their animals. So, they wanted to look for more fertile land for grazing their cattle.
6.
It was also due to epidemic diseases such as smallpox and sleeping sickness that affected them.
7.
They could have moved because of famine and drought that led to lack of food and water.
8.
It was because of influence of men like Zwangendaba, Maputo and Zulugama who provided good leadership. This encouraged them to move on wards.
9.
They migrated because of the spirit for Adventure.(Need to see what was beyond them).
10.
The leaders wanted to take over power in the areas they defeated, which was not acceptable to Shaka forcing some groups to migrate to other areas.
11.
They were fed up with the old traditional political system, which encouraged dictatorship and therefore wanted change, which could be achieved through migration.
12.
It could also have been due to overstocking of their animals. They migrated due to their spirit of cattle rustling, i.e they had great desire to steal other people’s cattle. For example, they went on driving away and confiscating other people’s cattle during their conquest and expansionist wars.
13.
They migrated due to the increased knowledge of military tactics by the age regiments. These were powerful military forces and dedicated to professional war, which was their livelihood. They believed that they could other territories through migration.
The GROWTH OF EXTERNAL CONTACTS AND PRESSURES
NGONI MIGRATION
ACTIVITIES
Introduction
Ngoni in East Africa
Ngoni from South Africa
The Ngoni Migration
In twenty years they travelled over a thousand miles.
In 1818 the Nguni started to fight among themselves for land and power. Different people wanted to be in charge. It led to the Zulu Wars. They fought each other for power. The ones that lost the the battles were forced to leave the Zulu lands. This was the start of a long migration to find somewhere else to live.
Zwangendaba was one of the defeated leaders. He fled north after his defeat in 1819. Zwangendaba's followers started to use the name Ngoni. Over the next 20 years they had to find ways to survive. How could they get food to eat? One way was to steal food and cattle from villages they came across. They killed people who tried to stop them. As you can imagine, they were disliked by the tribes they stole from. None of the other tribes wanted the Ngoni to live near them, so they forced them away. Each time the Ngoni were pushed further and further north. Until, eventually, they reached Southern Tanzania.
Not much was written about the Mfecane. What we know is from the diaries of missionaries and travellers from Europe, and from the stories passed down from generation to generation.
Shaka and the Zulu Wars
It all started with troubles in South Africa. They began at the start of the 19th century, around 1800. At this time the Zulu kingdom was led by a powerful warrior called Shaka (or Tchaka). The Zulus became rich and defeated many other tribes.
Zwangendaba
Ngoni Fighting Methods
As they moved north they came into conflict. They fought the other groups who were living on the lands they crossed. Because they knew Zulu fighting methods the Ngoni could usually defeat groups that opposed them. The Zulu warriors were well trained. They planned how they were going to fight their battles. Their trick was to try and surround their enemy. They went forward to battle in a horn formation and closed around their enemy. They used assegais,which were short stabbing spears and they were trained in man-to-man fighting. Most other tribes used throwing spears. Often the Ngoni would make a mock charge, get their opponents to throw their spears and then stab them with their assegais. After the battles they would force the young men to join their army and take young girls for wives. Other people, including the old people, were often killed.
The Ngoni specialised in fighting. That was all they knew. They could not produce their own food. They had to keep moving to find new villages they could plunder. The king of the Fipa people, who lived in that area, made peace with the Ngoni. This saved his kingdom from being destroyed. Zwangendaba built his own capital called Mapupo, which means "dreams". For two more years they raided neighbouring people, the Sukuma and Msafwa, to get food and cattle. Then they settled down with their animals and families, and started to grow crops.
Break up of the Ngoni
Zwangendaba died in Mapupo in 1845. He was buried in an ox hide at Chapota, near the Nyinaluzi River. He fled from the Zulu Wars in South Africa. But he spent the rest of his life fighting other tribes for survival. He was a great warrior and leader.
After Zwangendaba's death his family fought over who should succeed him. His group divided in two. Then each of these groups split up. In the end there were 5 separate groups. Three went back to cattle raiding, in Malawi and Zambia. Two groups went north as far as Lake Victoria. There they found Arabs who were taking local people as slaves.
Effects of the Ngoni migration and the Mkecane
The Ngoni migration and mfecane caused trouble for 20 years, in central and east Africa. Thousands of people were killed by the Ngoni. Villages were destroyed and people were forced offtheir land. Many of them starved due to the lack of food.
The main problem was that the Ngoni knew only one way of life and that was fighting. The only way they could feed themselves was to plunder and kill. They even sold many of the people they captured to slave traders. This caused more misery throughout East Africa.
Eventually the groups the Ngoni fought banded together for protection. One of the Sangu chieftains, Mwakawangu, united the people to defeat the Ngoni invaders. This gave the Sangu control of the rich, farming area of the Southern Highlands. Other groups also realised that they had to be strong to protect their livelihoods.
TASK 1: Ngoni Time Line
Make a list of the important dates between 1800 and 1845 and write down what happened at each date:
Ngoni time line
1800 Shaka ruled the Zulu kingdom in South Africa
1818 The Zulu Wars
1819
TASK 2: The Story of a Ngoni Warrior
Imagine you were a young warrior with Zangendaba.
You had been defeated in the Zulu wars and forced to leave your home.
Write a story to describe how you think you would have:
*
felt on your long journey of 1000 miles from the Zulu lands of South Africa to Southern Tanzania
*
what problems you would have faced and what dangers?
*
what was your daily life like and how did you survive?
*
why would you have been happy to settle down after 20 years of fighting and walking?
*
what you thought of your new home in Southern Tanzania, where there was good land and food and peace at last!
The Zulu and the Mfecane
The Zulu
The Zulu peoples were an important tribe in South Africa in the late 18th century (around 1790). They lived around the areas called Natal today. There were many small groups of Nguni, which was the old name for the Zulu. The groups lived separately and were not organised under one leader.
The Zulu were cattle herders but they also grew some crops. They came into contact with Portuguese farmers living in Mozambique. The Portuguese grew maize, which they brought to Africa from the Americas. Maize was a good crop to grow, because it produced more food from the same area of land. The Zulu also started to grow maize. This gave them more food and allowed Zululand to support more people. The Zulu became better fed and stronger and their population increased greatly.
Shaka Zulu
Shaka Zulu was the leader of one of the smaller Zulu chiefdoms. Because there was plenty of food he was able to have an army. The food for the warriors was provided by others. This allowed them to be a full-time army. They developed better weapons. One of these was the assegai, a short stabbing spear. The assegai was feared by enemies. Using his well-trained warriors Shaka took over neighbouring lands.
The Tribute System
He force other tribes to pay him tributes in exchange for protection. The tributes were gifts. They included cattle, furs, feathers, and carved wooden sculptures. He took control of all the precious metals. At this time they were copper and brass. The metal was used to make wooden clubs stronger. It was also used for ornaments, like neck rings and armbands. The more of these you had, the greater your importance in the tribe.
Drought and Crop Failure
The problems for the Zulu started after 1800. By then most of the good land was being used. As the population grew, the extra people had to fight for land in order to survive. Things were made worse by 10 years with much less rain. The period of drought meant that crops failed. This led to food shortages.
The Zulu Wars
The Zulu started to fight among themselves for land and water. This led to the Zulu Wars from about 1815 to 1820. Many people were killed and many others were forced off the land. The survivors had to move out of Zululand.
The Mfecane
This led to the great migration called the "Mfecane", which meant the "great scattering" . The Mfecane lasted from 1815 to 1840. The people could not move south, because the Dutch settlers had lived there since the 17th century. They could not move east because Portuguese farmers were there and there were also slave traders. So they moved north toward East Africa.
Zangendaba led the Ngoni group that made their way north as far as Southern Tanzania. This was what we now call the Ngoni migration.
TASK 1: Notes and pictures
Make some notes and pictures to explain:
1. Why the Zulu became important at the start of the 19th century.
2. Why they started to fight among themsleves in the Zulu Wars.
The Ngoni Migration
Do this when you have studied the whole topic of the Ngoni migration.
Make a list of the reasons why the Ngoni migrated from South Africa to Southern Tanzania.
What were the things that caused them to leave South Africa.
Why were they happy to settle in Southern Tanzania 20 years later?
The Ngoni and the Zulu
(1) Where the Ngoni live
The Wagoni are Bantu people. They live in south-west Tanzania.
They live in over 100 villages around the town of Songea.
(2) Their Zulu origins
The Wagoni have a strong story-telling tradition. Their elders tell stories about the tribe to the younger generation.
They are called "Hearing Tales". They are repeated often so the young can learn the stories. They then pass them on to their children.
This is how the history of the tribe is passed on from one generation to the next.
According to these "Hearing Tales" the Ngoni believe that the tribe is related to the Zulu.
Their stories tell of how they migrated to Tanzania from South Africa, from the area between Natal and Swaziland.
There are 12 branches of the Ngoni tribe. Other groups are in Northern Malawi, Eastern Zambia, Southern Zimbabwe and Mozambique.
(3) How the Ngoni are like the Zulu
The Ngoni in Southern Tanzania have a lot in common with other Ngoni groups and with the Zulu of South Africa.
1. Settlements. Their villages have a similar design.
Ngoni villages are built around the cattle enclosure. This is called a kraal. It is made from thorn bushes, to keep out wild animals. Cattle are the Ngoni's wealth. When they eat cow's meat they believe they are sharing with their dead ancestors.
The important buildings in a Ngoni village are the houses of the clan head, his chief wife and the hut for the boys. In the boys' hut they are trained in the Ngoni traditions. They also learn to hunt.
There is a separate area where the men of the village talk. The huts of other people are spread around the kraal. You can see from this that protecting the cattle is very important to the Ngoni. They also have some fields where they grow food crops. This settlement pattern is found in all the Ngoni groups as well as in traditional Zulu society. Below is a picture of the Ngoni men sitting inside the kraal.
2. Customs and rituals. As well as having similar settlements the Ngoni and the Zulu had similar customs and rituals.
a. Girls had initiation ceremonies where they are given sex education, taught family planning and house management.
b. Boys had similar circumcision ceremonies and they were taught to hunt, other skills, tribal beliefs and some were taught witchcraft.
c. Both boys and girls were taught the arts of painting, modelling and crafts.
d. The groups had similar traditional dances, which date back to their warrior past.
3. Language. They share many common words in their languages.
(But the languages of each group have merged with the languages of the people they live near, so they cannot any longer speak to each other in a common Ngoni language.)
4. Ngoni and Nguni. The Zulu belong to a group of tribes that are called the "Nguni" in South Africa. This is a very similar name to Ngoni, and another reason why many Ngoni believe they are related to the Zulu.
Please Note: The way of life of the Ngoni in East Africa and the Zulu of South Africa are similar. They could be related to the Zulu. On the other hand, they may have just picked up their customs after being conquered by the Zulu.
QUESTION
Do you believe that the Ngoni are related to the Zulu? Explain why.
HISTORY OF EAST AFRICA(BANTU HISTORY)
HISTORY
Migration and Settlement in East Africa (1000 –1880)
BANTU MIGRATION
ACTIVITIES
Introduction
Causes and effects of bantu migration
BANTU MIGRATION
Introduction
Between 1000-1800 AD, East Africa experienced a wave of migrations from different parts of Africa. The Bantu from the Congo or the Niger Delta Basin were the first to arrive, followed by the Luo from Bahr el Ghazel in Southern Sudan and then the Ngoni from Southern Africa.
Who were the Bantu?
The term Bantu refers to group of people who speak the same or similar language with common word “NTU” which means a person. The Bantu-speaking groups include the Baganda, Banyoro, Batoro in Uganda, Kikuyu, Akamba, Meru, Embu, Taita, Giryama, Digo in Kenya and Pokomo, Chagga, Yao, Segeju, Zaramo in Tanzania, as well as many other smaller groups.
Origin
There are two versions explaining the migration of the Bantu. The first version asserts that the Bantu came from West Africa around the Cameroon Highlands and Baunchi plateau of Nigeria; therefore, this points to the Niger basin as the possible cradle land of the Bantu. The second version posits that the Bantu came from the Katanga region in Southeastern Congo. Gradually they spread eastward north of the forest and southward to the forest’s edge near the lower Congo or Zaire and lower Kasai. The occupation of the north western (Cameroon- Gabon) was fairly slow due to difference in languages. Else where especially in eastern and southern Africa beginning at the edge of the forest, the spread must have been fast due to the relationship in languages.
The study of migrations will help the learners to understand their origin and settlement patterns, appreciate the interrelationship between the different peoples of East Africa like cultures, customs, etc. They will also understand change and continuity in societies i.e. life is not static but dynamic and this explains the current movements of people to different parts of East Africa.
TASK 1: Migration to Cities: Thinking together.
The largest city in Uganda is Kampala. Like many cities in Africa its population is growing fast.
Kampala has well over 1 million people. 40 years ago it only had one-quarter of the people.
The main reason it has grown so quickly is because of the migration.
People have moved to Kampala from towns and villages in all regions of the country.
They have come from the north, west and south of Uganda.
Others have migrated from neighbouring countries like Sudan and Rwanda and from distant countries such as Somalia and India.
Others who have come from more distant countries such as Somalia and India.
Why do you think people migrate?
Work on your own, in a group or with the whole class and your teacher.
Think of reasons why people might decide to migrate from one place to another.
Write the reasons in a table, under two headings:
Push Factors
Why people might want to leave one place.
Pull Factors
Why people might be attracted to a new place.
Possible answers...
Instructions
Read the story of Ntuha and his family and do the following
a) Draw a sketch map of East Africa and show the movement of
i) Mukasa and family
ii) Nyerere and family
iii) Ngugi and family
The movement and settlement of Ntuha and his family.
1. Once upon a time, there was a man called Ntuha who lived in the Niger Congo basin. He had four wives and many children due to a number of reasons, conflicts developed among his children. There was shortage of land for cultivation and pasture for the animals due to increasing numbers of people and animals, but children loved to adventure and so they decided to leave their cradle land and moved to other places.
Most of these children moved Eastwards. One of them was Mukasa who entered E. Africa in the region between L. Albert and lake Edward. Some members of his family settled around L. George while others continued on and settled around areas located North West of Lake Victoria.
2. Another group moved and settled in Tanzania Plateau and Taita Hills.
Another group that was discontented moved northwards and settled around Mt
Kilimanjaro. There was also another group that entered East Africa between
L.Malawi and Tanganyika.
Another group led by Nyerere entered E. Africa between L. Kivu and Tanganyika and settled in central Tanzania. Other groups crossed to Eastern Uganda and Western Kenya. These settled around Mt. Elgon area
3. From Tanzania, other members moved northwards, towards Mt. Kilimanjaro and entered Kenya between Mt. Kilimanjaro and coast most of these people settled around the Kenya highlands, this group was led by Ngugi.
MAP OF EAST AFRICA SHOWING THE BANTU MIGRATION AND SETTLEMENT
Description of the Bantu movements and settlement
The Bantu is believed to have moved in four groups. These groups were; Interlacustrine Bantu, Central Bantu, Highland Bantu and Southern Tanzania Bantu.
i) Interlacustrine Bantu or Western Bantu
This group was also referred to as the lake region Bantu. They entered East Africa between L. Edward and Albert and settled in the areas North and West of L. Victoria between 1000 – 1300 AD. They were basically agriculturists. Others moved west to Kenya and Eastern Uganda.
ii) Central Bantu
These moved into East Africa between L. Edward and L. Tanganyika and first settled in Central Tanzania between 1000 –1300 AD for example, the Sukuma and Nyamwezi. Others later crossed and settled in Tanzania Plateau and Taita Hills around 1300 AD. Others moved north.
iii) Highland Bantu
These settled in the Kenya Highlands around 1600 –1800 AD. These include the Kamba, Kikuyu, Embu, Chuka. They probably moved north from the Taita hills. Some writers have suggested that about 1300 the Chuka came up from the Tana river and were the first to arrive in the Mt. Kenya area. The Embu followed them, about 1425. The last group, the Kikuyu seem to have arrived in the Muranga by the middle of the 16th Century and in Kiambu by the end of the 17th Century. The migration of the Emba further was halted by the Masaai. The migrations of the Meru and related groups probably began at the Coast.
iv) Southern Tanzania Bantu
This group entered through L. Malawi and L. Tanganyika. They are also believed to Habe come from East Africa around 1000 – 1300. This group includes the Bena, Yao, Hehe.
According to the tradition between about 1591 and 1698, the Swahili sections of Kilidini, Changamwe and Tangana moved to Mombasa and formed Kalindini town. Where they had earlier migrated from Shungwaya because of attacks by the Galla and Somali. The Segeju and various sections of the Milikenda and other Swahili groups to join the Kilindini group and related peoples on the mainland behind Mombasa later joined them.
The Pokomo and Segeju traditions also suggest the theory of dispersal from Shunguwaya. The Pokomo say that they descended from Shunguwaya Bantu immigrants. However, due to contacts with other groups, they became a mixed community with Galla, Swahili, Segeju and Somali blood. The Segeju believed that in the second half of the 7th Century the Galla attacked their ancestors. One group fled to the Lamu islands and nearby areas where they intermarried with the local Swahili to form the present Bajun or Tikuu. A second group fled to the lower Tana and ancestors of present- day Buu section of the Segeju left the lower Tana and moved to the present homes
Migration and Settlement in East Africa (1000 –1880)
BANTU MIGRATION
ACTIVITIES
Introduction
Causes and effects of bantu migration
REASONS FOR THE BANTU MIGRATION
The reasons for the migration of the Bantu are not known but they most likely included the following;
1.
Drought and famine: They moved due to the fear of famine, which broke out due to overcrowding and drought. The climate in their cradle land had become unreliable/unpredictable.
2.
Population increase which resulted into over crowding: They migrated due to population pressure, e.g. they became overpopulated in their cradle land. This led to the scarcity of grazing and agriculture land, and so they had to move to look for more land, both for agriculture and for their cattle.
3.
The constant attacks (external pressure) from stronger tribes in West Africa and the Nile valley. They moved due to external pressure, especially due to the migration of the Arabs into West Africa. The Arabs were believed to be more hostile, and so Africans were forced to move southwards.
4.
Internal conflicts from the Bantu tribes: they migrated due to internal misunderstandings/conflicts between the different clans. These conflicts concerned the ownership of agriculture area, the shortage of grazing lands and watering areas.
5.
Epidemics and diseases/natural calamities: The Bantu moved due to natural disasters, e.g. earthquakes, over flooding of rivers like river Niger, sickness, diseases such as Nagana caused by Tsetse flies, sleeping sickness e.t.c.
6. Search for fertile land: Since they were predominantly farmers, the Bantu migrated
in order to find more land which could be more fertile than the cradle land, which could no longer support them. E.g. they had changed from hunting and gathering fruits, to farming and had even discovered new crops such as yams, banana, and e.t.c
7.
Love for adventure: They moved due to their desire for adventure, i.e. they wanted to find out what was happening in other areas.
8.
Group influence: Some moved because they had seen their relatives and friends move.
9.
Need for water and pasture for their animals forced them to move.
10.
The Bantu migrated in order to export their iron-working culture. They had discovered the knowledge of iron working and had invented iron tools. These iron tools had transformed the agricultural sector by making the clearing of land fro cultivation faster and more efficient.
Effects of the Bantu Migration
The results of the Bantu migration were both positive and negative.
Positive results
The results of the Bantu migration were both positive and negative.
Positive results. The positive results include;
1.
Introduction of iron working: they introduced iron-working and the use of iron tools in the interior of East Africa were at first using stone tools but when iron-smelting was started, there was an increase in food production.
2.
Introduction of new crops e.g. yams, bananas: the Bantu introduced and increased the knowledge of food and extensive crop cultivation. Earlier on, the inhabitants of East Africa were food gatherers, but with iron smelting and its results, food production seriously started.
3.
The absorbed other tribes e.g. the gathers: This led to a widespread Bantu languages of “NTU” prefix in East Africa.
4.
They introduced centralized administration: They introduced a centralized system of government whereby the king acted as the overall ruler, under whom were the other chiefs, down to the lay person.
5.
Introduced a system of building permanent homes: They opened new land to settlement in families, clans and villages.
6.
The knowledge of iron smelting which the Bantu introduced led to the making of hoes and pangas for tilling and clearing land, the bows, arrows and spears for defense and protection.
7.
They introduced subsistence agriculture, whereby they grew enough food for home consumption, and the rest could be kept in case of shortages, or be exchanged in barter trade.
8.
They led to a rise of large states and bigger tribes in East Africa, e.g. the Baganda, Kikuyu, Nyamwezi. e.t.c
Negative effects
1.
The Bantu migration led to depopulation: This was caused by the frequent attacks made by the Bantu against the people East Africa for land, through wars. Many people died through these wars, e.g. the Zimba would attack people at the coast, kill them, and eat their fresh (i.e. cannibalism).
2.
There was loss of culture due to cultural absorption: This was brought about due to Bantu intermarrying with the non- Bantu peoples, whom they came across.
3.
There was transformation of languages into new ones: This led to the dying down of some of the Bantu languages, while others remained.
QUESTIONS
1. (a) who are the Bantu?
(b) Why did they move from their cradle land?
2 (a) Describe the movement and settlement of Bantu people in E. Africa.
(b) What were the effects of their movement and settlement on the people of East Africa.
Migration and Settlement in East Africa (1000 –1880)
BANTU MIGRATION
ACTIVITIES
Introduction
Causes and effects of bantu migration
BANTU MIGRATION
Introduction
Between 1000-1800 AD, East Africa experienced a wave of migrations from different parts of Africa. The Bantu from the Congo or the Niger Delta Basin were the first to arrive, followed by the Luo from Bahr el Ghazel in Southern Sudan and then the Ngoni from Southern Africa.
Who were the Bantu?
The term Bantu refers to group of people who speak the same or similar language with common word “NTU” which means a person. The Bantu-speaking groups include the Baganda, Banyoro, Batoro in Uganda, Kikuyu, Akamba, Meru, Embu, Taita, Giryama, Digo in Kenya and Pokomo, Chagga, Yao, Segeju, Zaramo in Tanzania, as well as many other smaller groups.
Origin
There are two versions explaining the migration of the Bantu. The first version asserts that the Bantu came from West Africa around the Cameroon Highlands and Baunchi plateau of Nigeria; therefore, this points to the Niger basin as the possible cradle land of the Bantu. The second version posits that the Bantu came from the Katanga region in Southeastern Congo. Gradually they spread eastward north of the forest and southward to the forest’s edge near the lower Congo or Zaire and lower Kasai. The occupation of the north western (Cameroon- Gabon) was fairly slow due to difference in languages. Else where especially in eastern and southern Africa beginning at the edge of the forest, the spread must have been fast due to the relationship in languages.
The study of migrations will help the learners to understand their origin and settlement patterns, appreciate the interrelationship between the different peoples of East Africa like cultures, customs, etc. They will also understand change and continuity in societies i.e. life is not static but dynamic and this explains the current movements of people to different parts of East Africa.
TASK 1: Migration to Cities: Thinking together.
The largest city in Uganda is Kampala. Like many cities in Africa its population is growing fast.
Kampala has well over 1 million people. 40 years ago it only had one-quarter of the people.
The main reason it has grown so quickly is because of the migration.
People have moved to Kampala from towns and villages in all regions of the country.
They have come from the north, west and south of Uganda.
Others have migrated from neighbouring countries like Sudan and Rwanda and from distant countries such as Somalia and India.
Others who have come from more distant countries such as Somalia and India.
Why do you think people migrate?
Work on your own, in a group or with the whole class and your teacher.
Think of reasons why people might decide to migrate from one place to another.
Write the reasons in a table, under two headings:
Push Factors
Why people might want to leave one place.
Pull Factors
Why people might be attracted to a new place.
Possible answers...
Instructions
Read the story of Ntuha and his family and do the following
a) Draw a sketch map of East Africa and show the movement of
i) Mukasa and family
ii) Nyerere and family
iii) Ngugi and family
The movement and settlement of Ntuha and his family.
1. Once upon a time, there was a man called Ntuha who lived in the Niger Congo basin. He had four wives and many children due to a number of reasons, conflicts developed among his children. There was shortage of land for cultivation and pasture for the animals due to increasing numbers of people and animals, but children loved to adventure and so they decided to leave their cradle land and moved to other places.
Most of these children moved Eastwards. One of them was Mukasa who entered E. Africa in the region between L. Albert and lake Edward. Some members of his family settled around L. George while others continued on and settled around areas located North West of Lake Victoria.
2. Another group moved and settled in Tanzania Plateau and Taita Hills.
Another group that was discontented moved northwards and settled around Mt
Kilimanjaro. There was also another group that entered East Africa between
L.Malawi and Tanganyika.
Another group led by Nyerere entered E. Africa between L. Kivu and Tanganyika and settled in central Tanzania. Other groups crossed to Eastern Uganda and Western Kenya. These settled around Mt. Elgon area
3. From Tanzania, other members moved northwards, towards Mt. Kilimanjaro and entered Kenya between Mt. Kilimanjaro and coast most of these people settled around the Kenya highlands, this group was led by Ngugi.
MAP OF EAST AFRICA SHOWING THE BANTU MIGRATION AND SETTLEMENT
Description of the Bantu movements and settlement
The Bantu is believed to have moved in four groups. These groups were; Interlacustrine Bantu, Central Bantu, Highland Bantu and Southern Tanzania Bantu.
i) Interlacustrine Bantu or Western Bantu
This group was also referred to as the lake region Bantu. They entered East Africa between L. Edward and Albert and settled in the areas North and West of L. Victoria between 1000 – 1300 AD. They were basically agriculturists. Others moved west to Kenya and Eastern Uganda.
ii) Central Bantu
These moved into East Africa between L. Edward and L. Tanganyika and first settled in Central Tanzania between 1000 –1300 AD for example, the Sukuma and Nyamwezi. Others later crossed and settled in Tanzania Plateau and Taita Hills around 1300 AD. Others moved north.
iii) Highland Bantu
These settled in the Kenya Highlands around 1600 –1800 AD. These include the Kamba, Kikuyu, Embu, Chuka. They probably moved north from the Taita hills. Some writers have suggested that about 1300 the Chuka came up from the Tana river and were the first to arrive in the Mt. Kenya area. The Embu followed them, about 1425. The last group, the Kikuyu seem to have arrived in the Muranga by the middle of the 16th Century and in Kiambu by the end of the 17th Century. The migration of the Emba further was halted by the Masaai. The migrations of the Meru and related groups probably began at the Coast.
iv) Southern Tanzania Bantu
This group entered through L. Malawi and L. Tanganyika. They are also believed to Habe come from East Africa around 1000 – 1300. This group includes the Bena, Yao, Hehe.
According to the tradition between about 1591 and 1698, the Swahili sections of Kilidini, Changamwe and Tangana moved to Mombasa and formed Kalindini town. Where they had earlier migrated from Shungwaya because of attacks by the Galla and Somali. The Segeju and various sections of the Milikenda and other Swahili groups to join the Kilindini group and related peoples on the mainland behind Mombasa later joined them.
The Pokomo and Segeju traditions also suggest the theory of dispersal from Shunguwaya. The Pokomo say that they descended from Shunguwaya Bantu immigrants. However, due to contacts with other groups, they became a mixed community with Galla, Swahili, Segeju and Somali blood. The Segeju believed that in the second half of the 7th Century the Galla attacked their ancestors. One group fled to the Lamu islands and nearby areas where they intermarried with the local Swahili to form the present Bajun or Tikuu. A second group fled to the lower Tana and ancestors of present- day Buu section of the Segeju left the lower Tana and moved to the present homes
Migration and Settlement in East Africa (1000 –1880)
BANTU MIGRATION
ACTIVITIES
Introduction
Causes and effects of bantu migration
REASONS FOR THE BANTU MIGRATION
The reasons for the migration of the Bantu are not known but they most likely included the following;
1.
Drought and famine: They moved due to the fear of famine, which broke out due to overcrowding and drought. The climate in their cradle land had become unreliable/unpredictable.
2.
Population increase which resulted into over crowding: They migrated due to population pressure, e.g. they became overpopulated in their cradle land. This led to the scarcity of grazing and agriculture land, and so they had to move to look for more land, both for agriculture and for their cattle.
3.
The constant attacks (external pressure) from stronger tribes in West Africa and the Nile valley. They moved due to external pressure, especially due to the migration of the Arabs into West Africa. The Arabs were believed to be more hostile, and so Africans were forced to move southwards.
4.
Internal conflicts from the Bantu tribes: they migrated due to internal misunderstandings/conflicts between the different clans. These conflicts concerned the ownership of agriculture area, the shortage of grazing lands and watering areas.
5.
Epidemics and diseases/natural calamities: The Bantu moved due to natural disasters, e.g. earthquakes, over flooding of rivers like river Niger, sickness, diseases such as Nagana caused by Tsetse flies, sleeping sickness e.t.c.
6. Search for fertile land: Since they were predominantly farmers, the Bantu migrated
in order to find more land which could be more fertile than the cradle land, which could no longer support them. E.g. they had changed from hunting and gathering fruits, to farming and had even discovered new crops such as yams, banana, and e.t.c
7.
Love for adventure: They moved due to their desire for adventure, i.e. they wanted to find out what was happening in other areas.
8.
Group influence: Some moved because they had seen their relatives and friends move.
9.
Need for water and pasture for their animals forced them to move.
10.
The Bantu migrated in order to export their iron-working culture. They had discovered the knowledge of iron working and had invented iron tools. These iron tools had transformed the agricultural sector by making the clearing of land fro cultivation faster and more efficient.
Effects of the Bantu Migration
The results of the Bantu migration were both positive and negative.
Positive results
The results of the Bantu migration were both positive and negative.
Positive results. The positive results include;
1.
Introduction of iron working: they introduced iron-working and the use of iron tools in the interior of East Africa were at first using stone tools but when iron-smelting was started, there was an increase in food production.
2.
Introduction of new crops e.g. yams, bananas: the Bantu introduced and increased the knowledge of food and extensive crop cultivation. Earlier on, the inhabitants of East Africa were food gatherers, but with iron smelting and its results, food production seriously started.
3.
The absorbed other tribes e.g. the gathers: This led to a widespread Bantu languages of “NTU” prefix in East Africa.
4.
They introduced centralized administration: They introduced a centralized system of government whereby the king acted as the overall ruler, under whom were the other chiefs, down to the lay person.
5.
Introduced a system of building permanent homes: They opened new land to settlement in families, clans and villages.
6.
The knowledge of iron smelting which the Bantu introduced led to the making of hoes and pangas for tilling and clearing land, the bows, arrows and spears for defense and protection.
7.
They introduced subsistence agriculture, whereby they grew enough food for home consumption, and the rest could be kept in case of shortages, or be exchanged in barter trade.
8.
They led to a rise of large states and bigger tribes in East Africa, e.g. the Baganda, Kikuyu, Nyamwezi. e.t.c
Negative effects
1.
The Bantu migration led to depopulation: This was caused by the frequent attacks made by the Bantu against the people East Africa for land, through wars. Many people died through these wars, e.g. the Zimba would attack people at the coast, kill them, and eat their fresh (i.e. cannibalism).
2.
There was loss of culture due to cultural absorption: This was brought about due to Bantu intermarrying with the non- Bantu peoples, whom they came across.
3.
There was transformation of languages into new ones: This led to the dying down of some of the Bantu languages, while others remained.
QUESTIONS
1. (a) who are the Bantu?
(b) Why did they move from their cradle land?
2 (a) Describe the movement and settlement of Bantu people in E. Africa.
(b) What were the effects of their movement and settlement on the people of East Africa.
THE SLAVE TRADE
*SLAVE TRADE HISTORY
Slave trade: The buying and selling of human beings
* Slavery: The state of being enslaved: It’s a system where by some people are owned by others and are forced to work for others without being paid for the work they have done.
It involves capturing, transporting of human beings who become the ‘property’ of the buyer. The slave trade was one of the worst crimes against humanity. It involved burning people's houses capturing them by force,flogging, chaining and walking long distances to the markets once in the market, slaves were sold as you would sell cows, goats, hens and other commodities.
The trade was started by Arabs who wanted labour for domestic use and for their plantations. However, they were later joined by Europeans.
The study of slave trade, will help you to appreciate the historical facts that took place e.g. the suffering the people of East Africa went through and how it was overcome to gain freedom, liberty and brotherhood. It will also help you to understand why people behaved the way they did, its consequences for the lives of individuals and how a change of attitudes brought an end to the slave trade.
Reasons for the rise of slave trade
* During the second half of the 18th century, France opened up larger sugar plantations on the islands of Reunion, Mauritius and in the Indian Ocean. African slaves were thus recruited from East Africa to go and work in those plantations.
* Africans were considered physically fit to work in harsh climatic conditions compared to the native red Indians and Europeans. This greatly increased the demand for the indigenous people(slaves).
* The increased demand for sugar and cotton in Europe led to their increase in price and therefore more labour (slaves) was needed in the British colonies of West Indies and America.
* Strong desire for European goods by African chiefs like Mirambo and Nyungu ya Mawe forced them to acquire slaves in exchange for manufactured goods such as brass, metal ware, cotton cloth, beads, spirits such as whisky, guns and gun powder.
* The existence and recognition of slavery in East Africa societies. Domestic and child slavery already existed therefore Africans were willing to exchange slaves for European goods.
* The huge profits enjoyed by middlemen like Arab Swahilli traders encouraged the traders to get deeply involved in the trade.
* The suitable winds and currents (monsoon winds) which eased transportation for slave traders greatly contributed to the rise of slave trade.
* The Legalization of slave trade in 1802 by Napoleon 1 of France increased the demand for slaves in all French Colonies.
* The increased number of criminals, war captives, destitutes forced African chiefs to sell them off as slaves.
* The Oman Arabs contributed to the rise in the demand for slaves. This is because they acted as middlemen between the African Swahili people,the Portuguese and French traders. They therefore worked very hard to get slaves in order to obtain revenue from them.
*
Slave trade: The buying and selling of human beings
* Slavery: The state of being enslaved: It’s a system where by some people are owned by others and are forced to work for others without being paid for the work they have done.
It involves capturing, transporting of human beings who become the ‘property’ of the buyer. The slave trade was one of the worst crimes against humanity. It involved burning people's houses capturing them by force,flogging, chaining and walking long distances to the markets once in the market, slaves were sold as you would sell cows, goats, hens and other commodities.
The trade was started by Arabs who wanted labour for domestic use and for their plantations. However, they were later joined by Europeans.
The study of slave trade, will help you to appreciate the historical facts that took place e.g. the suffering the people of East Africa went through and how it was overcome to gain freedom, liberty and brotherhood. It will also help you to understand why people behaved the way they did, its consequences for the lives of individuals and how a change of attitudes brought an end to the slave trade.
Reasons for the rise of slave trade
* During the second half of the 18th century, France opened up larger sugar plantations on the islands of Reunion, Mauritius and in the Indian Ocean. African slaves were thus recruited from East Africa to go and work in those plantations.
* Africans were considered physically fit to work in harsh climatic conditions compared to the native red Indians and Europeans. This greatly increased the demand for the indigenous people(slaves).
* The increased demand for sugar and cotton in Europe led to their increase in price and therefore more labour (slaves) was needed in the British colonies of West Indies and America.
* Strong desire for European goods by African chiefs like Mirambo and Nyungu ya Mawe forced them to acquire slaves in exchange for manufactured goods such as brass, metal ware, cotton cloth, beads, spirits such as whisky, guns and gun powder.
* The existence and recognition of slavery in East Africa societies. Domestic and child slavery already existed therefore Africans were willing to exchange slaves for European goods.
* The huge profits enjoyed by middlemen like Arab Swahilli traders encouraged the traders to get deeply involved in the trade.
* The suitable winds and currents (monsoon winds) which eased transportation for slave traders greatly contributed to the rise of slave trade.
* The Legalization of slave trade in 1802 by Napoleon 1 of France increased the demand for slaves in all French Colonies.
* The increased number of criminals, war captives, destitutes forced African chiefs to sell them off as slaves.
* The Oman Arabs contributed to the rise in the demand for slaves. This is because they acted as middlemen between the African Swahili people,the Portuguese and French traders. They therefore worked very hard to get slaves in order to obtain revenue from them.
* The invention of Spanish mines in West indices increased slave demands to work in the mines.
* The exodus of slaves from East Africa to Northeast Africa, Arabia and Persia contributed to the increase in the demand for slaves. It led to an enormous number of slaves obtained from East Africa being transported to other countries.
* The movement of Seyyid Said’s capital to Zanzibar led to an increase in slave trade. This is because when Seyyid said settled in Zanzibar in 1840, he embarked on strong plans to open up slave trade routes to the interior of East Africa. This boosted slave trade, whereby the number of slaves being sold at the slave market in Zanzibar annually by that time, reached between 40000 and 45000 thousand slaves.
* The outbreak of diseases like Nagana led to an increase in slave trade. This is because the beasts of burden (i.e. camels, donkeys, etc) could not be taken on many of the caravan routes. It therefore necessitated people themselves to be involved in the transportation of the trade goods and ivory. Such people included porters who were regarded as slaves, or free Africans who could sell their services in return for cloth and other trade goods.
* Development of long distance trade that needed slaves to transport goods from the interior of East Africa.
* Plantation farming increased in some areas, especially the clove plantations were slaves worked.
* The invention of Spanish mines in West indices increased slave demands to work in the mines.
* The exodus of slaves from East Africa to Northeast Africa, Arabia and Persia contributed to the increase in the demand for slaves. It led to an enormous number of slaves obtained from East Africa being transported to other countries.
* The movement of Seyyid Said’s capital to Zanzibar led to an increase in slave trade. This is because when Seyyid said settled in Zanzibar in 1840, he embarked on strong plans to open up slave trade routes to the interior of East Africa. This boosted slave trade, whereby the number of slaves being sold at the slave market in Zanzibar annually by that time, reached between 40000 and 45000 thousand slaves.
* The outbreak of diseases like Nagana led to an increase in slave trade. This is because the beasts of burden (i.e. camels, donkeys, etc) could not be taken on many of the caravan routes. It therefore necessitated people themselves to be involved in the transportation of the trade goods and ivory. Such people included porters who were regarded as slaves, or free Africans who could sell their services in return for cloth and other trade goods.
* Development of long distance trade that needed slaves to transport goods from the interior of East Africa.
* Plantation farming increased in some areas, especially the clove plantations were slaves worked.
The growth of external contacts and pressures
The slave trade in East Africa
ACTIVITIES
Introduction
Slave trade in East Africa
Organisation of slave trade
Abolition of slave trade
Slave Trade Pictures and Play
The growth of external contacts and pressures
The slave trade in East Africa
ACTIVITIES
Introduction
Slave trade in East Africa
Organisation of slave trade
Abolition of slave trade
Slave Trade Pictures and Play
Organization of slave trade in E. Africa
The middlemen involved were;
*
Arab Swahili traders
*
African chiefs.
Ways of obtaining slaves
*
Selling of domestic slaves in exchange for goods like beads, guns, glass etc
*
Selling of criminals, debtors and social misfits in society by the local chiefs to the Arab slave traders.
*
Prisoners of war could be sold off.
*
Porters were sometimes kidnapped, transported and sold off to the Arab traders.
*
Raiding villages, this would begin at night with gun shoots and people would scatter consequently leading to their capture.
*
Through inter tribal wars many Africans become destitutes and these would be captured by the slave traders.
*
Tax offenders were sold off by the African chiefs.
*
They were also captured through ambushes during hunting, travelling and gardening.
*
Slaves would be acquired from the main slave trade market in Zanzibar.
*
Other Africans are also said to have gone voluntarily in anticipation of great wonders and benefits from the Arab Swahili traders.
MAP OF EAST AFRICA SHOWING TRADE ROUTES
Slave journey: -
*
Slaves' journey was a difficult one. They moved long distances on foot.
*
Chained, whipped and sometimes killed on the way.
*
Had little food and water and experienced extreme suffering.
This is illustrated by a Quotation from Dr. David Livingstone’s Last Journal. London 1878:
“We passed a woman tied by the neck to a tree and dead …we saw others tied up in a similar manner, and one lying in the path shot or stabbed for she was in a pool of blood. The explanation we got invariably was that the Arab who owned these victims was enraged at losing the money by the slaves becoming unable to march.”
*
The main slave market where slaves were auctioned was at Zanzibar.
*
The journey across the India Ocean was horrible.
*
Crowded in ships with hardly any space to breath. Ships carried anything from 250 to 600 slaves. They were very over crowded and packed like spoons with no room even to turn.
*
Whenever they saw anti-slave trade people, slaves would be thrown in the ocean
*
As a result many died in the process.
Slave life on the plantation or mines
*
Life was unbearable, slaves worked day and night.
*
Sanitary conditions were very poor
*
There were revolts, burning cotton and sugar plantations.
*
Some slaves temporarily regained their liberty
* The song below reflects slave life in plantations
Music: song on the slave trade
Slave! Slave! Slave!
In America,
Working day, day and night,
Planting sugar, sugar and tea,
When I was in America.
See my hand,
Which was broken,
Working day, day and night,
Planting sugar, sugar and tea,
When I was in America.
See my leg……
See my back
Effects/Impact of slave trade on people of E. Africa.
Positive effects
*
New foods were introduced through trade routes like maize, pawpaws, rice, groundnuts both at the coast and in the interior.
*
Plantation farming increased in some areas, especially the clove plantations were slaves worked.
*
The interior was opened to the outside world this later encouraged the coming of European missionaries. Many European Christian missionaries came to East Africa to preach against slave trade and to campaign for its abolition.
*
The trade routes became permanent routes and inland roads which led to growth of communication networks.
*
Swahili was introduced in land and is now being widely spoken in Tanzania , Kenya ,Uganda and Eastern Congo.
*
Islam as a religion was introduced by Arabs and it spread , especially in Yao land and in Buganda land.
*
A new race called Swahili was formed through intermarriages between Arabs and some Africans.
*
There was growth of Arab towns such as Tabora and Ujiji inland.
*
There was emergence of dynamic leaders such as Mirambo and Nyungu ya Mawe in the latter half of the nineteenth century.
*
Slave trade strengthened the large and powerful states, which could easily get access to guns at the expense of small ones.
*
Slave trade led to a situation whereby power became centralised and no longer with the small, local authority (segimentary societies) mainly to enable African chiefs directly control slave trade.
*
Slave trade encouraged large-scale trade whereby contact was established between the trade masters and indigenous/local population.
* Africans were dispersed to other parts of the world e.g Arabia, America and West Indies. In Africa, Sierra-Leone and Liberia were founded to accommodate former slaves from Europe and America.
Negative effects
*
African population was reduced, people who would have been great leaders and empire builders were killed. It is estimated that over 15 to 30 million people were solded in to slavery while other millions died in the process being transported.
*
Slave trade brought misery, suffering and lowered the quality of people in East Africa this is because they were reduced to ‘commodities’ which could be bought and sold on land.
*
Villages and families were destroyed and broken up by slave raiders and never to be reunited this later resulted in to loss of identity.
*
Diseases broke out among the overcrowded slaves for example the Spaniards introduced Syphilis and soon it spread to other traders.
*
Slave trade led to displacement of people and many became homeless and destitute many and stayed in Europe with no identity.
*
Economic activities such as farming were disrupted. This is because the young and able craftsmen, traders and farmers were carried off, causing economic stagnation as the economic workforce depleted.
*
Progress slowed down, which resulted in famine, poverty and destitution and helplessness.
*
There was a decline in production of traditional goods such as coffee, beans, bark cloth and iron which greatly hindered the cash economy.
*
There was a decline in African industries which also faced a lot of competition from imported manufactured goods for example the Bark cloth and iron working industries.
*
Guns were introduced into the interior which caused a lot of insecurity and increased incidences of wars for territorial expansion.
*
Clans and tribal units, languages were broken and inter-tribal peace was disturbed for example swahili language replaced the traditional languages in the interior.The growth of external contacts and pressures
The slave trade in East Africa
ACTIVITIES
Introduction
Slave trade in East Africa
Organisation of slave trade
Abolition of slave trade
Slave Trade Pictures and Play
Abolition of slave trade
Reasons why it was difficult to stop slave trade
*
Slavery existed before in Africa societies that is to say, domestic slavery and internal slave trade, which provided a favourable situation for continuation of the lucrative slave trade.
*
The Abolition movement which had begun in Britain and her overseas territory first took effect in West Africa. The decline in west African trade encouraged the expansion of trade in East Africa especially with America and West Indies.
*
Slave trade was difficult to stop because of division of African tribes against each other .This meant that African tribes would find it difficult to unite together and resist the slave traders, who raided their societies using organised bands of men.
*
Disregard of human life ,many African rulers tended to put less value for the lives of their subjects whom they ruled for example quite often, a ruler of a tribe would easily order his warriors to attack the villages of his subjects and seize their property ,kill some of them .
*
Active participation and willing cooperation of African chiefs and coastal traders who were making a lot of profits made the slave trade last for so long.
*
Many European countries depended on the products of slave labour in West Indies and America for example, British industries depended on raw sugar, raw cotton and unprocessed minerals from America which she was not willing to loose.
*
European slave merchants and Africans involved in the trade were blinded by the huge profits made from the trade.
*
There was smuggling of slaves outside the forbidden areas. Slave traders would pretend to sail northwards when sighted by British patrol ships but would change course after British navy ships had disappeared.
*
Other European countries refused to co-operate with Britain to end slave trade because they had not yet become industrialized, and therefore they still benefited from it for example Portugal and Spain.
*
The only economic alternative of slave trade was Agriculture which was not reliable compared to the booming slave trade.
*
The anti slavery campaign was too expensive for Britain alone to compensate slave owners.
*
Stopping slave trade in the interior was difficult because Arabs were in control of large areas.
*
The East African coastline was long which delayed the anti-slavery group penetration in the interior.
*
Due to the tropical climate, most British personnel were affected by malaria which hindered the stopping of Slave trade.
*
Seyyid Said and Bargash were always unwilling to end slave trade at once due to fear of losing revenue and risk of rebellion by Arabs who found it profitable.
*
The anti-slavery group was small compared to the East African Coast.
*
European powers continued with slave trade, they shipped the slaves cargos in to ships bearing American Flags.
Factors that led to the abolition of slave trade
It was the British government that began the abolition of the slave trade during the years,1822 - 1826 . This was because of the pressure by various groups based on different factors;
* Rise of humanitarians in Europe such as Christians and scholars condemned it on moral grounds. The missionaries wanted it to be stopped because they wanted good conditions for the spread of Christianity. The formation of the humanitarian movements in England aimed at stopping all kinds of cruelty including slave trade, flogging of soldiers and child labour.
* Industrialization in Britain was one of the main forces behind the abolition .E.g. Britain industrialists urged its abolition because they wanted Africans to be left in Africa so that Africa can be a source of raw materials for their industries, market for European manufactured goods and a place for new investment of surplus capital.
* Formation of Anti-slavery movement and the abolitionist movement in 1787. Its chairman was Granville Sharp and others like Thomas Clarkson, William Wilberforce who gathered facts and stories about the brutality of slave trade and slavery to arouse public opinion in Britain.
* Religious revival in Europe, Anglicans preached and condemned slave trade as being opposed to laws of God and humanity. Catholic popes also protested against the trade and prohibited it. In 1774, many religious leaders served as examples when they liberated their slaves in England.
* The French revolution of 1789 and the American revolution of 1776 emphasized liberty, equality and fraternity(brotherhood) of all human beings. As a result, people began to question whether anyone had a right to deprive fellow man of his liberty when he had done wrong.
*
The British desire to protect their national interests, British planters wanted slave trade stopped to avoid competition with other European planters .This is because other planters were producing cheaper sugar ,British sugar accumulated hence the need to stop over production.
*
The rise of men with new ideas e.g. Prof. Adam Smith(challenged the economic arguments which were the basis of slave trade when he argued convincingly that hired labour is cheaper and more productive than slave labour, Rousseau spread the idea of personal liberty and equality of all men.
*
Slaves had become less profitable and yet had led to over population in Europe.
*
Influential abolitionists like William Wilberforce( a British member of parliament ) urged the British government to legislate against the slave trade in her colonies.
*
The ship owners stopped transporting slaves from Africa and began transporting raw materials directly from Africa and America to Europe ,which led to a decline in slave trade.
Steps in the abolition of slave trade
The movement to abolish slave trade started in Britain with the formation of Anti-slavery movement. The British government abolished the slave trade through anti slave laws (Legislation), treaties and use of force.
The Anti – slavery movement was led by Granville sharp, other members were Thomas Clarkson, William Wilberforce and others.
*
The first step was taken in 1772 when slavery was declared illegal and abolished in Britain. The humanitarians secured judgment against slavery from the British court.
*
In 1807, British parliament outlawed slave trade for British subjects.
*
1817 British negotiated the “reciprocal search treaties” with Spain and Portugal.
*
Equipment treaties signed with Spain 1835 Portugal 1842 and America 1862.
*
In E. Africa in 1822 Moresby treaty was signed between Captain Moresby and Sultan Seyyid Said it forbade the shipping of slaves outside the sultan’s territories. British ships were authorized to stop and search suspected Arab slave-carrying dhows.
*
In 1845, Hamerton treaty was signed between Colonel Hamerton and Sultan Seyyid Said. It forbade the shipping of slaves outside the Sultan‘s East African possessions, i.e, beyond Brava to the north.
*
In 1871 the British set up a parliamentary commission of inquiry to investigate and report on slave trade in E. Africa.
*
In 1872 Sir Bartle Frere persuaded Sultan Barghash to stop slave trade but not much was achieved.
On 5th March 1873, the Sultan passed a decree prohibiting the export of slaves from main land and closing of slave market at Zanzibar. Zanzibar slave market was to be closed within 24 hours.
* 1876 the Sultan decreed that no slaves were to be transported overland.
* 1897 decree left slaves to claim their freedom themselves
* 1907 ,slavery was abolished entirely in Zanzibar and Pemba.
* In 1927, slavery ended in Tanganyika when Britain took over from Germany after the 2nd world war.
The growth of external contacts and pressures
The slave trade in East Africa
ACTIVITIES
Introduction
Slave trade in East Africa
Organisation of slave trade
Abolition of slave trade
Slave Trade Pictures and Play
Abolition of slave trade
Reasons why it was difficult to stop slave trade
*
Slavery existed before in Africa societies that is to say, domestic slavery and internal slave trade, which provided a favourable situation for continuation of the lucrative slave trade.
*
The Abolition movement which had begun in Britain and her overseas territory first took effect in West Africa. The decline in west African trade encouraged the expansion of trade in East Africa especially with America and West Indies.
*
Slave trade was difficult to stop because of division of African tribes against each other .This meant that African tribes would find it difficult to unite together and resist the slave traders, who raided their societies using organised bands of men.
*
Disregard of human life ,many African rulers tended to put less value for the lives of their subjects whom they ruled for example quite often, a ruler of a tribe would easily order his warriors to attack the villages of his subjects and seize their property ,kill some of them .
*
Active participation and willing cooperation of African chiefs and coastal traders who were making a lot of profits made the slave trade last for so long.
*
Many European countries depended on the products of slave labour in West Indies and America for example, British industries depended on raw sugar, raw cotton and unprocessed minerals from America which she was not willing to loose.
*
European slave merchants and Africans involved in the trade were blinded by the huge profits made from the trade.
*
There was smuggling of slaves outside the forbidden areas. Slave traders would pretend to sail northwards when sighted by British patrol ships but would change course after British navy ships had disappeared.
*
Other European countries refused to co-operate with Britain to end slave trade because they had not yet become industrialized, and therefore they still benefited from it for example Portugal and Spain.
*
The only economic alternative of slave trade was Agriculture which was not reliable compared to the booming slave trade.
*
The anti slavery campaign was too expensive for Britain alone to compensate slave owners.
*
Stopping slave trade in the interior was difficult because Arabs were in control of large areas.
*
The East African coastline was long which delayed the anti-slavery group penetration in the interior.
*
Due to the tropical climate, most British personnel were affected by malaria which hindered the stopping of Slave trade.
*
Seyyid Said and Bargash were always unwilling to end slave trade at once due to fear of losing revenue and risk of rebellion by Arabs who found it profitable.
*
The anti-slavery group was small compared to the East African Coast.
*
European powers continued with slave trade, they shipped the slaves cargos in to ships bearing American Flags.
Factors that led to the abolition of slave trade
It was the British government that began the abolition of the slave trade during the years,1822 - 1826 . This was because of the pressure by various groups based on different factors;
* Rise of humanitarians in Europe such as Christians and scholars condemned it on moral grounds. The missionaries wanted it to be stopped because they wanted good conditions for the spread of Christianity. The formation of the humanitarian movements in England aimed at stopping all kinds of cruelty including slave trade, flogging of soldiers and child labour.
* Industrialization in Britain was one of the main forces behind the abolition .E.g. Britain industrialists urged its abolition because they wanted Africans to be left in Africa so that Africa can be a source of raw materials for their industries, market for European manufactured goods and a place for new investment of surplus capital.
* Formation of Anti-slavery movement and the abolitionist movement in 1787. Its chairman was Granville Sharp and others like Thomas Clarkson, William Wilberforce who gathered facts and stories about the brutality of slave trade and slavery to arouse public opinion in Britain.
* Religious revival in Europe, Anglicans preached and condemned slave trade as being opposed to laws of God and humanity. Catholic popes also protested against the trade and prohibited it. In 1774, many religious leaders served as examples when they liberated their slaves in England.
* The French revolution of 1789 and the American revolution of 1776 emphasized liberty, equality and fraternity(brotherhood) of all human beings. As a result, people began to question whether anyone had a right to deprive fellow man of his liberty when he had done wrong.
*
The British desire to protect their national interests, British planters wanted slave trade stopped to avoid competition with other European planters .This is because other planters were producing cheaper sugar ,British sugar accumulated hence the need to stop over production.
*
The rise of men with new ideas e.g. Prof. Adam Smith(challenged the economic arguments which were the basis of slave trade when he argued convincingly that hired labour is cheaper and more productive than slave labour, Rousseau spread the idea of personal liberty and equality of all men.
*
Slaves had become less profitable and yet had led to over population in Europe.
*
Influential abolitionists like William Wilberforce( a British member of parliament ) urged the British government to legislate against the slave trade in her colonies.
*
The ship owners stopped transporting slaves from Africa and began transporting raw materials directly from Africa and America to Europe ,which led to a decline in slave trade.
Steps in the abolition of slave trade
The movement to abolish slave trade started in Britain with the formation of Anti-slavery movement. The British government abolished the slave trade through anti slave laws (Legislation), treaties and use of force.
The Anti – slavery movement was led by Granville sharp, other members were Thomas Clarkson, William Wilberforce and others.
*
The first step was taken in 1772 when slavery was declared illegal and abolished in Britain. The humanitarians secured judgment against slavery from the British court.
*
In 1807, British parliament outlawed slave trade for British subjects.
*
1817 British negotiated the “reciprocal search treaties” with Spain and Portugal.
*
Equipment treaties signed with Spain 1835 Portugal 1842 and America 1862.
*
In E. Africa in 1822 Moresby treaty was signed between Captain Moresby and Sultan Seyyid Said it forbade the shipping of slaves outside the sultan’s territories. British ships were authorized to stop and search suspected Arab slave-carrying dhows.
*
In 1845, Hamerton treaty was signed between Colonel Hamerton and Sultan Seyyid Said. It forbade the shipping of slaves outside the Sultan‘s East African possessions, i.e, beyond Brava to the north.
*
In 1871 the British set up a parliamentary commission of inquiry to investigate and report on slave trade in E. Africa.
*
In 1872 Sir Bartle Frere persuaded Sultan Barghash to stop slave trade but not much was achieved.
On 5th March 1873, the Sultan passed a decree prohibiting the export of slaves from main land and closing of slave market at Zanzibar. Zanzibar slave market was to be closed within 24 hours.
* 1876 the Sultan decreed that no slaves were to be transported overland.
* 1897 decree left slaves to claim their freedom themselves
* 1907 ,slavery was abolished entirely in Zanzibar and Pemba.
* In 1927, slavery ended in Tanganyika when Britain took over from Germany after the 2nd world war.
Effects of abolition of slave trade
*
The suppression of slave trade led to loss of independence that is to say, it confirmed among the Arabs and Swahilis that the Sultan had lost independence over the East African coast, and that he was now a British puppet .
*
The suppression of slave trade led to development and growth of legitimate trade which provided equally profitable business to both Europeans and African traders. Many ship owners diverted their ships from transporting slaves to transporting raw cotton and raw sugar from Brazil and America.
*
It accelerated the coming of European missionaries to East Africa who emphasized peace and obedience thus the later European colonization of East Africa.
*
Disintegration of the sultan Empire. This is because it loosened the economic and political control which the sultan had over the East African nations .His empire in E.A. therefore began to crumble .This gave opportunity to other ambitious leaders like Tippu-Tip to create an independent state in Manyema ,where he began selling his ivory and slaves to the Belgians in Zaire.
*
The abolition of slave trade was a catalyst to the partition of East Africa where by Britain took over Kenya, Zanzibar and Uganda and Germany took over Tanganyika.
*
Slave trade markets were also closed foe example Zanzibar in 1873 following the frere treaty signed between Sultan Bargash and Bantle Frere.
*
Islam became unpopular as many converted to Christianity.
*
African societies regained their respect and strength as they were no longer sold off as commodities.
Effects of abolition of slave trade
*
The suppression of slave trade led to loss of independence that is to say, it confirmed among the Arabs and Swahilis that the Sultan had lost independence over the East African coast, and that he was now a British puppet .
*
The suppression of slave trade led to development and growth of legitimate trade which provided equally profitable business to both Europeans and African traders. Many ship owners diverted their ships from transporting slaves to transporting raw cotton and raw sugar from Brazil and America.
*
It accelerated the coming of European missionaries to East Africa who emphasized peace and obedience thus the later European colonization of East Africa.
*
Disintegration of the sultan Empire. This is because it loosened the economic and political control which the sultan had over the East African nations .His empire in E.A. therefore began to crumble .This gave opportunity to other ambitious leaders like Tippu-Tip to create an independent state in Manyema ,where he began selling his ivory and slaves to the Belgians in Zaire.
*
The abolition of slave trade was a catalyst to the partition of East Africa where by Britain took over Kenya, Zanzibar and Uganda and Germany took over Tanganyika.
*
Slave trade markets were also closed foe example Zanzibar in 1873 following the frere treaty signed between Sultan Bargash and Bantle Frere.
*
Islam became unpopular as many converted to Christianity.
*
African societies regained their respect and strength as they were no longer sold off as commodities.
Slave trade: The buying and selling of human beings
* Slavery: The state of being enslaved: It’s a system where by some people are owned by others and are forced to work for others without being paid for the work they have done.
It involves capturing, transporting of human beings who become the ‘property’ of the buyer. The slave trade was one of the worst crimes against humanity. It involved burning people's houses capturing them by force,flogging, chaining and walking long distances to the markets once in the market, slaves were sold as you would sell cows, goats, hens and other commodities.
The trade was started by Arabs who wanted labour for domestic use and for their plantations. However, they were later joined by Europeans.
The study of slave trade, will help you to appreciate the historical facts that took place e.g. the suffering the people of East Africa went through and how it was overcome to gain freedom, liberty and brotherhood. It will also help you to understand why people behaved the way they did, its consequences for the lives of individuals and how a change of attitudes brought an end to the slave trade.
Reasons for the rise of slave trade
* During the second half of the 18th century, France opened up larger sugar plantations on the islands of Reunion, Mauritius and in the Indian Ocean. African slaves were thus recruited from East Africa to go and work in those plantations.
* Africans were considered physically fit to work in harsh climatic conditions compared to the native red Indians and Europeans. This greatly increased the demand for the indigenous people(slaves).
* The increased demand for sugar and cotton in Europe led to their increase in price and therefore more labour (slaves) was needed in the British colonies of West Indies and America.
* Strong desire for European goods by African chiefs like Mirambo and Nyungu ya Mawe forced them to acquire slaves in exchange for manufactured goods such as brass, metal ware, cotton cloth, beads, spirits such as whisky, guns and gun powder.
* The existence and recognition of slavery in East Africa societies. Domestic and child slavery already existed therefore Africans were willing to exchange slaves for European goods.
* The huge profits enjoyed by middlemen like Arab Swahilli traders encouraged the traders to get deeply involved in the trade.
* The suitable winds and currents (monsoon winds) which eased transportation for slave traders greatly contributed to the rise of slave trade.
* The Legalization of slave trade in 1802 by Napoleon 1 of France increased the demand for slaves in all French Colonies.
* The increased number of criminals, war captives, destitutes forced African chiefs to sell them off as slaves.
* The Oman Arabs contributed to the rise in the demand for slaves. This is because they acted as middlemen between the African Swahili people,the Portuguese and French traders. They therefore worked very hard to get slaves in order to obtain revenue from them.
*
Slave trade: The buying and selling of human beings
* Slavery: The state of being enslaved: It’s a system where by some people are owned by others and are forced to work for others without being paid for the work they have done.
It involves capturing, transporting of human beings who become the ‘property’ of the buyer. The slave trade was one of the worst crimes against humanity. It involved burning people's houses capturing them by force,flogging, chaining and walking long distances to the markets once in the market, slaves were sold as you would sell cows, goats, hens and other commodities.
The trade was started by Arabs who wanted labour for domestic use and for their plantations. However, they were later joined by Europeans.
The study of slave trade, will help you to appreciate the historical facts that took place e.g. the suffering the people of East Africa went through and how it was overcome to gain freedom, liberty and brotherhood. It will also help you to understand why people behaved the way they did, its consequences for the lives of individuals and how a change of attitudes brought an end to the slave trade.
Reasons for the rise of slave trade
* During the second half of the 18th century, France opened up larger sugar plantations on the islands of Reunion, Mauritius and in the Indian Ocean. African slaves were thus recruited from East Africa to go and work in those plantations.
* Africans were considered physically fit to work in harsh climatic conditions compared to the native red Indians and Europeans. This greatly increased the demand for the indigenous people(slaves).
* The increased demand for sugar and cotton in Europe led to their increase in price and therefore more labour (slaves) was needed in the British colonies of West Indies and America.
* Strong desire for European goods by African chiefs like Mirambo and Nyungu ya Mawe forced them to acquire slaves in exchange for manufactured goods such as brass, metal ware, cotton cloth, beads, spirits such as whisky, guns and gun powder.
* The existence and recognition of slavery in East Africa societies. Domestic and child slavery already existed therefore Africans were willing to exchange slaves for European goods.
* The huge profits enjoyed by middlemen like Arab Swahilli traders encouraged the traders to get deeply involved in the trade.
* The suitable winds and currents (monsoon winds) which eased transportation for slave traders greatly contributed to the rise of slave trade.
* The Legalization of slave trade in 1802 by Napoleon 1 of France increased the demand for slaves in all French Colonies.
* The increased number of criminals, war captives, destitutes forced African chiefs to sell them off as slaves.
* The Oman Arabs contributed to the rise in the demand for slaves. This is because they acted as middlemen between the African Swahili people,the Portuguese and French traders. They therefore worked very hard to get slaves in order to obtain revenue from them.
* The invention of Spanish mines in West indices increased slave demands to work in the mines.
* The exodus of slaves from East Africa to Northeast Africa, Arabia and Persia contributed to the increase in the demand for slaves. It led to an enormous number of slaves obtained from East Africa being transported to other countries.
* The movement of Seyyid Said’s capital to Zanzibar led to an increase in slave trade. This is because when Seyyid said settled in Zanzibar in 1840, he embarked on strong plans to open up slave trade routes to the interior of East Africa. This boosted slave trade, whereby the number of slaves being sold at the slave market in Zanzibar annually by that time, reached between 40000 and 45000 thousand slaves.
* The outbreak of diseases like Nagana led to an increase in slave trade. This is because the beasts of burden (i.e. camels, donkeys, etc) could not be taken on many of the caravan routes. It therefore necessitated people themselves to be involved in the transportation of the trade goods and ivory. Such people included porters who were regarded as slaves, or free Africans who could sell their services in return for cloth and other trade goods.
* Development of long distance trade that needed slaves to transport goods from the interior of East Africa.
* Plantation farming increased in some areas, especially the clove plantations were slaves worked.
* The invention of Spanish mines in West indices increased slave demands to work in the mines.
* The exodus of slaves from East Africa to Northeast Africa, Arabia and Persia contributed to the increase in the demand for slaves. It led to an enormous number of slaves obtained from East Africa being transported to other countries.
* The movement of Seyyid Said’s capital to Zanzibar led to an increase in slave trade. This is because when Seyyid said settled in Zanzibar in 1840, he embarked on strong plans to open up slave trade routes to the interior of East Africa. This boosted slave trade, whereby the number of slaves being sold at the slave market in Zanzibar annually by that time, reached between 40000 and 45000 thousand slaves.
* The outbreak of diseases like Nagana led to an increase in slave trade. This is because the beasts of burden (i.e. camels, donkeys, etc) could not be taken on many of the caravan routes. It therefore necessitated people themselves to be involved in the transportation of the trade goods and ivory. Such people included porters who were regarded as slaves, or free Africans who could sell their services in return for cloth and other trade goods.
* Development of long distance trade that needed slaves to transport goods from the interior of East Africa.
* Plantation farming increased in some areas, especially the clove plantations were slaves worked.
The growth of external contacts and pressures
The slave trade in East Africa
ACTIVITIES
Introduction
Slave trade in East Africa
Organisation of slave trade
Abolition of slave trade
Slave Trade Pictures and Play
The growth of external contacts and pressures
The slave trade in East Africa
ACTIVITIES
Introduction
Slave trade in East Africa
Organisation of slave trade
Abolition of slave trade
Slave Trade Pictures and Play
Organization of slave trade in E. Africa
The middlemen involved were;
*
Arab Swahili traders
*
African chiefs.
Ways of obtaining slaves
*
Selling of domestic slaves in exchange for goods like beads, guns, glass etc
*
Selling of criminals, debtors and social misfits in society by the local chiefs to the Arab slave traders.
*
Prisoners of war could be sold off.
*
Porters were sometimes kidnapped, transported and sold off to the Arab traders.
*
Raiding villages, this would begin at night with gun shoots and people would scatter consequently leading to their capture.
*
Through inter tribal wars many Africans become destitutes and these would be captured by the slave traders.
*
Tax offenders were sold off by the African chiefs.
*
They were also captured through ambushes during hunting, travelling and gardening.
*
Slaves would be acquired from the main slave trade market in Zanzibar.
*
Other Africans are also said to have gone voluntarily in anticipation of great wonders and benefits from the Arab Swahili traders.
MAP OF EAST AFRICA SHOWING TRADE ROUTES
Slave journey: -
*
Slaves' journey was a difficult one. They moved long distances on foot.
*
Chained, whipped and sometimes killed on the way.
*
Had little food and water and experienced extreme suffering.
This is illustrated by a Quotation from Dr. David Livingstone’s Last Journal. London 1878:
“We passed a woman tied by the neck to a tree and dead …we saw others tied up in a similar manner, and one lying in the path shot or stabbed for she was in a pool of blood. The explanation we got invariably was that the Arab who owned these victims was enraged at losing the money by the slaves becoming unable to march.”
*
The main slave market where slaves were auctioned was at Zanzibar.
*
The journey across the India Ocean was horrible.
*
Crowded in ships with hardly any space to breath. Ships carried anything from 250 to 600 slaves. They were very over crowded and packed like spoons with no room even to turn.
*
Whenever they saw anti-slave trade people, slaves would be thrown in the ocean
*
As a result many died in the process.
Slave life on the plantation or mines
*
Life was unbearable, slaves worked day and night.
*
Sanitary conditions were very poor
*
There were revolts, burning cotton and sugar plantations.
*
Some slaves temporarily regained their liberty
* The song below reflects slave life in plantations
Music: song on the slave trade
Slave! Slave! Slave!
In America,
Working day, day and night,
Planting sugar, sugar and tea,
When I was in America.
See my hand,
Which was broken,
Working day, day and night,
Planting sugar, sugar and tea,
When I was in America.
See my leg……
See my back
Effects/Impact of slave trade on people of E. Africa.
Positive effects
*
New foods were introduced through trade routes like maize, pawpaws, rice, groundnuts both at the coast and in the interior.
*
Plantation farming increased in some areas, especially the clove plantations were slaves worked.
*
The interior was opened to the outside world this later encouraged the coming of European missionaries. Many European Christian missionaries came to East Africa to preach against slave trade and to campaign for its abolition.
*
The trade routes became permanent routes and inland roads which led to growth of communication networks.
*
Swahili was introduced in land and is now being widely spoken in Tanzania , Kenya ,Uganda and Eastern Congo.
*
Islam as a religion was introduced by Arabs and it spread , especially in Yao land and in Buganda land.
*
A new race called Swahili was formed through intermarriages between Arabs and some Africans.
*
There was growth of Arab towns such as Tabora and Ujiji inland.
*
There was emergence of dynamic leaders such as Mirambo and Nyungu ya Mawe in the latter half of the nineteenth century.
*
Slave trade strengthened the large and powerful states, which could easily get access to guns at the expense of small ones.
*
Slave trade led to a situation whereby power became centralised and no longer with the small, local authority (segimentary societies) mainly to enable African chiefs directly control slave trade.
*
Slave trade encouraged large-scale trade whereby contact was established between the trade masters and indigenous/local population.
* Africans were dispersed to other parts of the world e.g Arabia, America and West Indies. In Africa, Sierra-Leone and Liberia were founded to accommodate former slaves from Europe and America.
Negative effects
*
African population was reduced, people who would have been great leaders and empire builders were killed. It is estimated that over 15 to 30 million people were solded in to slavery while other millions died in the process being transported.
*
Slave trade brought misery, suffering and lowered the quality of people in East Africa this is because they were reduced to ‘commodities’ which could be bought and sold on land.
*
Villages and families were destroyed and broken up by slave raiders and never to be reunited this later resulted in to loss of identity.
*
Diseases broke out among the overcrowded slaves for example the Spaniards introduced Syphilis and soon it spread to other traders.
*
Slave trade led to displacement of people and many became homeless and destitute many and stayed in Europe with no identity.
*
Economic activities such as farming were disrupted. This is because the young and able craftsmen, traders and farmers were carried off, causing economic stagnation as the economic workforce depleted.
*
Progress slowed down, which resulted in famine, poverty and destitution and helplessness.
*
There was a decline in production of traditional goods such as coffee, beans, bark cloth and iron which greatly hindered the cash economy.
*
There was a decline in African industries which also faced a lot of competition from imported manufactured goods for example the Bark cloth and iron working industries.
*
Guns were introduced into the interior which caused a lot of insecurity and increased incidences of wars for territorial expansion.
*
Clans and tribal units, languages were broken and inter-tribal peace was disturbed for example swahili language replaced the traditional languages in the interior.The growth of external contacts and pressures
The slave trade in East Africa
ACTIVITIES
Introduction
Slave trade in East Africa
Organisation of slave trade
Abolition of slave trade
Slave Trade Pictures and Play
Abolition of slave trade
Reasons why it was difficult to stop slave trade
*
Slavery existed before in Africa societies that is to say, domestic slavery and internal slave trade, which provided a favourable situation for continuation of the lucrative slave trade.
*
The Abolition movement which had begun in Britain and her overseas territory first took effect in West Africa. The decline in west African trade encouraged the expansion of trade in East Africa especially with America and West Indies.
*
Slave trade was difficult to stop because of division of African tribes against each other .This meant that African tribes would find it difficult to unite together and resist the slave traders, who raided their societies using organised bands of men.
*
Disregard of human life ,many African rulers tended to put less value for the lives of their subjects whom they ruled for example quite often, a ruler of a tribe would easily order his warriors to attack the villages of his subjects and seize their property ,kill some of them .
*
Active participation and willing cooperation of African chiefs and coastal traders who were making a lot of profits made the slave trade last for so long.
*
Many European countries depended on the products of slave labour in West Indies and America for example, British industries depended on raw sugar, raw cotton and unprocessed minerals from America which she was not willing to loose.
*
European slave merchants and Africans involved in the trade were blinded by the huge profits made from the trade.
*
There was smuggling of slaves outside the forbidden areas. Slave traders would pretend to sail northwards when sighted by British patrol ships but would change course after British navy ships had disappeared.
*
Other European countries refused to co-operate with Britain to end slave trade because they had not yet become industrialized, and therefore they still benefited from it for example Portugal and Spain.
*
The only economic alternative of slave trade was Agriculture which was not reliable compared to the booming slave trade.
*
The anti slavery campaign was too expensive for Britain alone to compensate slave owners.
*
Stopping slave trade in the interior was difficult because Arabs were in control of large areas.
*
The East African coastline was long which delayed the anti-slavery group penetration in the interior.
*
Due to the tropical climate, most British personnel were affected by malaria which hindered the stopping of Slave trade.
*
Seyyid Said and Bargash were always unwilling to end slave trade at once due to fear of losing revenue and risk of rebellion by Arabs who found it profitable.
*
The anti-slavery group was small compared to the East African Coast.
*
European powers continued with slave trade, they shipped the slaves cargos in to ships bearing American Flags.
Factors that led to the abolition of slave trade
It was the British government that began the abolition of the slave trade during the years,1822 - 1826 . This was because of the pressure by various groups based on different factors;
* Rise of humanitarians in Europe such as Christians and scholars condemned it on moral grounds. The missionaries wanted it to be stopped because they wanted good conditions for the spread of Christianity. The formation of the humanitarian movements in England aimed at stopping all kinds of cruelty including slave trade, flogging of soldiers and child labour.
* Industrialization in Britain was one of the main forces behind the abolition .E.g. Britain industrialists urged its abolition because they wanted Africans to be left in Africa so that Africa can be a source of raw materials for their industries, market for European manufactured goods and a place for new investment of surplus capital.
* Formation of Anti-slavery movement and the abolitionist movement in 1787. Its chairman was Granville Sharp and others like Thomas Clarkson, William Wilberforce who gathered facts and stories about the brutality of slave trade and slavery to arouse public opinion in Britain.
* Religious revival in Europe, Anglicans preached and condemned slave trade as being opposed to laws of God and humanity. Catholic popes also protested against the trade and prohibited it. In 1774, many religious leaders served as examples when they liberated their slaves in England.
* The French revolution of 1789 and the American revolution of 1776 emphasized liberty, equality and fraternity(brotherhood) of all human beings. As a result, people began to question whether anyone had a right to deprive fellow man of his liberty when he had done wrong.
*
The British desire to protect their national interests, British planters wanted slave trade stopped to avoid competition with other European planters .This is because other planters were producing cheaper sugar ,British sugar accumulated hence the need to stop over production.
*
The rise of men with new ideas e.g. Prof. Adam Smith(challenged the economic arguments which were the basis of slave trade when he argued convincingly that hired labour is cheaper and more productive than slave labour, Rousseau spread the idea of personal liberty and equality of all men.
*
Slaves had become less profitable and yet had led to over population in Europe.
*
Influential abolitionists like William Wilberforce( a British member of parliament ) urged the British government to legislate against the slave trade in her colonies.
*
The ship owners stopped transporting slaves from Africa and began transporting raw materials directly from Africa and America to Europe ,which led to a decline in slave trade.
Steps in the abolition of slave trade
The movement to abolish slave trade started in Britain with the formation of Anti-slavery movement. The British government abolished the slave trade through anti slave laws (Legislation), treaties and use of force.
The Anti – slavery movement was led by Granville sharp, other members were Thomas Clarkson, William Wilberforce and others.
*
The first step was taken in 1772 when slavery was declared illegal and abolished in Britain. The humanitarians secured judgment against slavery from the British court.
*
In 1807, British parliament outlawed slave trade for British subjects.
*
1817 British negotiated the “reciprocal search treaties” with Spain and Portugal.
*
Equipment treaties signed with Spain 1835 Portugal 1842 and America 1862.
*
In E. Africa in 1822 Moresby treaty was signed between Captain Moresby and Sultan Seyyid Said it forbade the shipping of slaves outside the sultan’s territories. British ships were authorized to stop and search suspected Arab slave-carrying dhows.
*
In 1845, Hamerton treaty was signed between Colonel Hamerton and Sultan Seyyid Said. It forbade the shipping of slaves outside the Sultan‘s East African possessions, i.e, beyond Brava to the north.
*
In 1871 the British set up a parliamentary commission of inquiry to investigate and report on slave trade in E. Africa.
*
In 1872 Sir Bartle Frere persuaded Sultan Barghash to stop slave trade but not much was achieved.
On 5th March 1873, the Sultan passed a decree prohibiting the export of slaves from main land and closing of slave market at Zanzibar. Zanzibar slave market was to be closed within 24 hours.
* 1876 the Sultan decreed that no slaves were to be transported overland.
* 1897 decree left slaves to claim their freedom themselves
* 1907 ,slavery was abolished entirely in Zanzibar and Pemba.
* In 1927, slavery ended in Tanganyika when Britain took over from Germany after the 2nd world war.
The growth of external contacts and pressures
The slave trade in East Africa
ACTIVITIES
Introduction
Slave trade in East Africa
Organisation of slave trade
Abolition of slave trade
Slave Trade Pictures and Play
Abolition of slave trade
Reasons why it was difficult to stop slave trade
*
Slavery existed before in Africa societies that is to say, domestic slavery and internal slave trade, which provided a favourable situation for continuation of the lucrative slave trade.
*
The Abolition movement which had begun in Britain and her overseas territory first took effect in West Africa. The decline in west African trade encouraged the expansion of trade in East Africa especially with America and West Indies.
*
Slave trade was difficult to stop because of division of African tribes against each other .This meant that African tribes would find it difficult to unite together and resist the slave traders, who raided their societies using organised bands of men.
*
Disregard of human life ,many African rulers tended to put less value for the lives of their subjects whom they ruled for example quite often, a ruler of a tribe would easily order his warriors to attack the villages of his subjects and seize their property ,kill some of them .
*
Active participation and willing cooperation of African chiefs and coastal traders who were making a lot of profits made the slave trade last for so long.
*
Many European countries depended on the products of slave labour in West Indies and America for example, British industries depended on raw sugar, raw cotton and unprocessed minerals from America which she was not willing to loose.
*
European slave merchants and Africans involved in the trade were blinded by the huge profits made from the trade.
*
There was smuggling of slaves outside the forbidden areas. Slave traders would pretend to sail northwards when sighted by British patrol ships but would change course after British navy ships had disappeared.
*
Other European countries refused to co-operate with Britain to end slave trade because they had not yet become industrialized, and therefore they still benefited from it for example Portugal and Spain.
*
The only economic alternative of slave trade was Agriculture which was not reliable compared to the booming slave trade.
*
The anti slavery campaign was too expensive for Britain alone to compensate slave owners.
*
Stopping slave trade in the interior was difficult because Arabs were in control of large areas.
*
The East African coastline was long which delayed the anti-slavery group penetration in the interior.
*
Due to the tropical climate, most British personnel were affected by malaria which hindered the stopping of Slave trade.
*
Seyyid Said and Bargash were always unwilling to end slave trade at once due to fear of losing revenue and risk of rebellion by Arabs who found it profitable.
*
The anti-slavery group was small compared to the East African Coast.
*
European powers continued with slave trade, they shipped the slaves cargos in to ships bearing American Flags.
Factors that led to the abolition of slave trade
It was the British government that began the abolition of the slave trade during the years,1822 - 1826 . This was because of the pressure by various groups based on different factors;
* Rise of humanitarians in Europe such as Christians and scholars condemned it on moral grounds. The missionaries wanted it to be stopped because they wanted good conditions for the spread of Christianity. The formation of the humanitarian movements in England aimed at stopping all kinds of cruelty including slave trade, flogging of soldiers and child labour.
* Industrialization in Britain was one of the main forces behind the abolition .E.g. Britain industrialists urged its abolition because they wanted Africans to be left in Africa so that Africa can be a source of raw materials for their industries, market for European manufactured goods and a place for new investment of surplus capital.
* Formation of Anti-slavery movement and the abolitionist movement in 1787. Its chairman was Granville Sharp and others like Thomas Clarkson, William Wilberforce who gathered facts and stories about the brutality of slave trade and slavery to arouse public opinion in Britain.
* Religious revival in Europe, Anglicans preached and condemned slave trade as being opposed to laws of God and humanity. Catholic popes also protested against the trade and prohibited it. In 1774, many religious leaders served as examples when they liberated their slaves in England.
* The French revolution of 1789 and the American revolution of 1776 emphasized liberty, equality and fraternity(brotherhood) of all human beings. As a result, people began to question whether anyone had a right to deprive fellow man of his liberty when he had done wrong.
*
The British desire to protect their national interests, British planters wanted slave trade stopped to avoid competition with other European planters .This is because other planters were producing cheaper sugar ,British sugar accumulated hence the need to stop over production.
*
The rise of men with new ideas e.g. Prof. Adam Smith(challenged the economic arguments which were the basis of slave trade when he argued convincingly that hired labour is cheaper and more productive than slave labour, Rousseau spread the idea of personal liberty and equality of all men.
*
Slaves had become less profitable and yet had led to over population in Europe.
*
Influential abolitionists like William Wilberforce( a British member of parliament ) urged the British government to legislate against the slave trade in her colonies.
*
The ship owners stopped transporting slaves from Africa and began transporting raw materials directly from Africa and America to Europe ,which led to a decline in slave trade.
Steps in the abolition of slave trade
The movement to abolish slave trade started in Britain with the formation of Anti-slavery movement. The British government abolished the slave trade through anti slave laws (Legislation), treaties and use of force.
The Anti – slavery movement was led by Granville sharp, other members were Thomas Clarkson, William Wilberforce and others.
*
The first step was taken in 1772 when slavery was declared illegal and abolished in Britain. The humanitarians secured judgment against slavery from the British court.
*
In 1807, British parliament outlawed slave trade for British subjects.
*
1817 British negotiated the “reciprocal search treaties” with Spain and Portugal.
*
Equipment treaties signed with Spain 1835 Portugal 1842 and America 1862.
*
In E. Africa in 1822 Moresby treaty was signed between Captain Moresby and Sultan Seyyid Said it forbade the shipping of slaves outside the sultan’s territories. British ships were authorized to stop and search suspected Arab slave-carrying dhows.
*
In 1845, Hamerton treaty was signed between Colonel Hamerton and Sultan Seyyid Said. It forbade the shipping of slaves outside the Sultan‘s East African possessions, i.e, beyond Brava to the north.
*
In 1871 the British set up a parliamentary commission of inquiry to investigate and report on slave trade in E. Africa.
*
In 1872 Sir Bartle Frere persuaded Sultan Barghash to stop slave trade but not much was achieved.
On 5th March 1873, the Sultan passed a decree prohibiting the export of slaves from main land and closing of slave market at Zanzibar. Zanzibar slave market was to be closed within 24 hours.
* 1876 the Sultan decreed that no slaves were to be transported overland.
* 1897 decree left slaves to claim their freedom themselves
* 1907 ,slavery was abolished entirely in Zanzibar and Pemba.
* In 1927, slavery ended in Tanganyika when Britain took over from Germany after the 2nd world war.
Effects of abolition of slave trade
*
The suppression of slave trade led to loss of independence that is to say, it confirmed among the Arabs and Swahilis that the Sultan had lost independence over the East African coast, and that he was now a British puppet .
*
The suppression of slave trade led to development and growth of legitimate trade which provided equally profitable business to both Europeans and African traders. Many ship owners diverted their ships from transporting slaves to transporting raw cotton and raw sugar from Brazil and America.
*
It accelerated the coming of European missionaries to East Africa who emphasized peace and obedience thus the later European colonization of East Africa.
*
Disintegration of the sultan Empire. This is because it loosened the economic and political control which the sultan had over the East African nations .His empire in E.A. therefore began to crumble .This gave opportunity to other ambitious leaders like Tippu-Tip to create an independent state in Manyema ,where he began selling his ivory and slaves to the Belgians in Zaire.
*
The abolition of slave trade was a catalyst to the partition of East Africa where by Britain took over Kenya, Zanzibar and Uganda and Germany took over Tanganyika.
*
Slave trade markets were also closed foe example Zanzibar in 1873 following the frere treaty signed between Sultan Bargash and Bantle Frere.
*
Islam became unpopular as many converted to Christianity.
*
African societies regained their respect and strength as they were no longer sold off as commodities.
Effects of abolition of slave trade
*
The suppression of slave trade led to loss of independence that is to say, it confirmed among the Arabs and Swahilis that the Sultan had lost independence over the East African coast, and that he was now a British puppet .
*
The suppression of slave trade led to development and growth of legitimate trade which provided equally profitable business to both Europeans and African traders. Many ship owners diverted their ships from transporting slaves to transporting raw cotton and raw sugar from Brazil and America.
*
It accelerated the coming of European missionaries to East Africa who emphasized peace and obedience thus the later European colonization of East Africa.
*
Disintegration of the sultan Empire. This is because it loosened the economic and political control which the sultan had over the East African nations .His empire in E.A. therefore began to crumble .This gave opportunity to other ambitious leaders like Tippu-Tip to create an independent state in Manyema ,where he began selling his ivory and slaves to the Belgians in Zaire.
*
The abolition of slave trade was a catalyst to the partition of East Africa where by Britain took over Kenya, Zanzibar and Uganda and Germany took over Tanganyika.
*
Slave trade markets were also closed foe example Zanzibar in 1873 following the frere treaty signed between Sultan Bargash and Bantle Frere.
*
Islam became unpopular as many converted to Christianity.
*
African societies regained their respect and strength as they were no longer sold off as commodities.
BE COMPITENT IN SPEAKING
Pubilc Speaking - The theme of your speech
At the heart of every speech is a message. Your job as a public speaker is to pass that message to your audience and in so doing, convey a theme, evoke an emotion or elicit a response - be it emotional or otherwise.
The first step is to identify the single most important idea, theme or message you want to convey in your speech. This message will likely be informed by the public speaking occasion you identified earlier.
For example, if you identified the occasion as the retirement of much loved lifelong company man whose grandson has just joined the firm, some potential themes you identify may include:
Family (grandson & grandfather, also the company family)
CPubilc Speaking - The theme of your speech
At the heart of every speech is a message. Your job as a public speaker is to pass that message to your audience and in so doing, convey a theme, evoke an emotion or elicit a response - be it emotional or otherwise.
The first step is to identify the single most important idea, theme or message you want to convey in your speech. This message will likely be informed by the public speaking occasion you identified earlier.
For example, if you identified the occasion as the retirement of much loved lifelong company man whose grandson has just joined the firm, some potential themes you identify may include:
Family (grandson & grandfather, also the company family)
Continuity
Gratitude
Respect
The future
Once you have identified 3-7 potential themes, it's time to decide which of theme will be the dominant one. Again, there is no right and wrong answer. It's your speech, pick the theme that resonates most with you. It's important to note that the themes not selected as your primary theme should still play a part in your speech. DO not discard them just yet.
ontinuity
Gratitude
Respect
The future
Once you have identified 3-7 potential themes, it's time to decide which of theme will be the dominant one. Again, there is no right and wrong answer. It's your speech, pick the theme that resonates most with you. It's important to note that the themes not selected as your primary theme should still play a part in your speech. DO not discard them just yet.
Draft your speech
It is now time to add flesh to your outline and create a first draft of the speech. Before we start, note that a draft is just that, a first-cut at your speech. Your first draft of a speech should never, ever be the final draft.
The outline we created in the last step will serve as the basis for our first draft. We take each element of the outline and apply our creative writing juices to turn that outline into a portion of a speech.
There is no right or wrong way to move from outline to draft. Be yourself, use your own voice and remember, you can change anything and everything you write later. For now it's just important to establish that first draft.
Let's take some examples from the outline in the last step.
The conversion from outline to draft can be simple, exchanging an outline element for a speech sentence...
Outline:
Introduce myself
Speech draft
"As my perspiring brow and nervous demeanor might suggest, I am honored to introduce myself as the Best Man for today's wonderful occasion. I will not be speaking for long today because of a throat problem. John says he will cut it if I bring up any embarrassing stories about him."
... or more likely the process is less direct and more creative...
Outline:
Pay tribute to key participants
Compliment & raise toast to the bride
Thank & compliment the bridesmaids
Pay tribute to parents of bride and groom
Speech draft
"I know it is a cliché but I would just like to comment on how stunning Sarah looks today, she is beautiful, John is a very lucky man. And without further ado I would like to raise a toast for Sarah.
"As is traditional in any wedding I would like to complement the Bridesmaids on their help with the wedding, particularly for managing to get Sarah to the church today. It's amazing what a pair of handcuffs can do. The Bridesmaids look beautiful, outdone only by our stunning bride.
"I would like to pay special tribute to John and Sarah's parents. They have helped make this a very special day. Can I also say how beautiful both mom's look, they are simply divine."
Once you have finished your first draft of the speech, it's time to take a rest. Put the speech down and forget about it for a day or two. First, you need a rest. But second, your critical eyes will function much better in the cold light of day. You will be amazed at how much your speech will improve when you go from first to second to third draft - but only if you leave time between each draft.
There is no scientific way to know when you have reached your speech's final draft, but here is a good indication: If you find yourself broadly happy with the speech and find yourself making minor changes from draft to draft, it's time to stop.
Draft your speech
It is now time to add flesh to your outline and create a first draft of the speech. Before we start, note that a draft is just that, a first-cut at your speech. Your first draft of a speech should never, ever be the final draft.
The outline we created in the last step will serve as the basis for our first draft. We take each element of the outline and apply our creative writing juices to turn that outline into a portion of a speech.
There is no right or wrong way to move from outline to draft. Be yourself, use your own voice and remember, you can change anything and everything you write later. For now it's just important to establish that first draft.
Let's take some examples from the outline in the last step.
The conversion from outline to draft can be simple, exchanging an outline element for a speech sentence...
Outline:
Introduce myself
Speech draft
"As my perspiring brow and nervous demeanor might suggest, I am honored to introduce myself as the Best Man for today's wonderful occasion. I will not be speaking for long today because of a throat problem. John says he will cut it if I bring up any embarrassing stories about him."
... or more likely the process is less direct and more creative...
Outline:
Pay tribute to key participants
Compliment & raise toast to the bride
Thank & compliment the bridesmaids
Pay tribute to parents of bride and groom
Speech draft
"I know it is a cliché but I would just like to comment on how stunning Sarah looks today, she is beautiful, John is a very lucky man. And without further ado I would like to raise a toast for Sarah.
"As is traditional in any wedding I would like to complement the Bridesmaids on their help with the wedding, particularly for managing to get Sarah to the church today. It's amazing what a pair of handcuffs can do. The Bridesmaids look beautiful, outdone only by our stunning bride.
"I would like to pay special tribute to John and Sarah's parents. They have helped make this a very special day. Can I also say how beautiful both mom's look, they are simply divine."
Once you have finished your first draft of the speech, it's time to take a rest. Put the speech down and forget about it for a day or two. First, you need a rest. But second, your critical eyes will function much better in the cold light of day. You will be amazed at how much your speech will improve when you go from first to second to third draft - but only if you leave time between each draft.
There is no scientific way to know when you have reached your speech's final draft, but here is a good indication: If you find yourself broadly happy with the speech and find yourself making minor changes from draft to draft, it's time to stop.
< Final version
Preparing to make a speech >>
How to deliver a speech
It's time to commence your public speaking career and deliver a speech in public. You're probably nervous now, but that's okay. There is much preparation you can do that will put your mind at ease and make your public speaking event a comfortable, even enjoyable, day.
You have already learnt how to write a speech. Hopefully you now have a speech with which you are happy. This set of exercises will take you from nervous speechwriter to successful speechmaker.
It's time to lose your novice public speaker wings.
At the heart of every speech is a message. Your job as a public speaker is to pass that message to your audience and in so doing, convey a theme, evoke an emotion or elicit a response - be it emotional or otherwise.
The first step is to identify the single most important idea, theme or message you want to convey in your speech. This message will likely be informed by the public speaking occasion you identified earlier.
For example, if you identified the occasion as the retirement of much loved lifelong company man whose grandson has just joined the firm, some potential themes you identify may include:
Family (grandson & grandfather, also the company family)
CPubilc Speaking - The theme of your speech
At the heart of every speech is a message. Your job as a public speaker is to pass that message to your audience and in so doing, convey a theme, evoke an emotion or elicit a response - be it emotional or otherwise.
The first step is to identify the single most important idea, theme or message you want to convey in your speech. This message will likely be informed by the public speaking occasion you identified earlier.
For example, if you identified the occasion as the retirement of much loved lifelong company man whose grandson has just joined the firm, some potential themes you identify may include:
Family (grandson & grandfather, also the company family)
Continuity
Gratitude
Respect
The future
Once you have identified 3-7 potential themes, it's time to decide which of theme will be the dominant one. Again, there is no right and wrong answer. It's your speech, pick the theme that resonates most with you. It's important to note that the themes not selected as your primary theme should still play a part in your speech. DO not discard them just yet.
ontinuity
Gratitude
Respect
The future
Once you have identified 3-7 potential themes, it's time to decide which of theme will be the dominant one. Again, there is no right and wrong answer. It's your speech, pick the theme that resonates most with you. It's important to note that the themes not selected as your primary theme should still play a part in your speech. DO not discard them just yet.
Draft your speech
It is now time to add flesh to your outline and create a first draft of the speech. Before we start, note that a draft is just that, a first-cut at your speech. Your first draft of a speech should never, ever be the final draft.
The outline we created in the last step will serve as the basis for our first draft. We take each element of the outline and apply our creative writing juices to turn that outline into a portion of a speech.
There is no right or wrong way to move from outline to draft. Be yourself, use your own voice and remember, you can change anything and everything you write later. For now it's just important to establish that first draft.
Let's take some examples from the outline in the last step.
The conversion from outline to draft can be simple, exchanging an outline element for a speech sentence...
Outline:
Introduce myself
Speech draft
"As my perspiring brow and nervous demeanor might suggest, I am honored to introduce myself as the Best Man for today's wonderful occasion. I will not be speaking for long today because of a throat problem. John says he will cut it if I bring up any embarrassing stories about him."
... or more likely the process is less direct and more creative...
Outline:
Pay tribute to key participants
Compliment & raise toast to the bride
Thank & compliment the bridesmaids
Pay tribute to parents of bride and groom
Speech draft
"I know it is a cliché but I would just like to comment on how stunning Sarah looks today, she is beautiful, John is a very lucky man. And without further ado I would like to raise a toast for Sarah.
"As is traditional in any wedding I would like to complement the Bridesmaids on their help with the wedding, particularly for managing to get Sarah to the church today. It's amazing what a pair of handcuffs can do. The Bridesmaids look beautiful, outdone only by our stunning bride.
"I would like to pay special tribute to John and Sarah's parents. They have helped make this a very special day. Can I also say how beautiful both mom's look, they are simply divine."
Once you have finished your first draft of the speech, it's time to take a rest. Put the speech down and forget about it for a day or two. First, you need a rest. But second, your critical eyes will function much better in the cold light of day. You will be amazed at how much your speech will improve when you go from first to second to third draft - but only if you leave time between each draft.
There is no scientific way to know when you have reached your speech's final draft, but here is a good indication: If you find yourself broadly happy with the speech and find yourself making minor changes from draft to draft, it's time to stop.
Draft your speech
It is now time to add flesh to your outline and create a first draft of the speech. Before we start, note that a draft is just that, a first-cut at your speech. Your first draft of a speech should never, ever be the final draft.
The outline we created in the last step will serve as the basis for our first draft. We take each element of the outline and apply our creative writing juices to turn that outline into a portion of a speech.
There is no right or wrong way to move from outline to draft. Be yourself, use your own voice and remember, you can change anything and everything you write later. For now it's just important to establish that first draft.
Let's take some examples from the outline in the last step.
The conversion from outline to draft can be simple, exchanging an outline element for a speech sentence...
Outline:
Introduce myself
Speech draft
"As my perspiring brow and nervous demeanor might suggest, I am honored to introduce myself as the Best Man for today's wonderful occasion. I will not be speaking for long today because of a throat problem. John says he will cut it if I bring up any embarrassing stories about him."
... or more likely the process is less direct and more creative...
Outline:
Pay tribute to key participants
Compliment & raise toast to the bride
Thank & compliment the bridesmaids
Pay tribute to parents of bride and groom
Speech draft
"I know it is a cliché but I would just like to comment on how stunning Sarah looks today, she is beautiful, John is a very lucky man. And without further ado I would like to raise a toast for Sarah.
"As is traditional in any wedding I would like to complement the Bridesmaids on their help with the wedding, particularly for managing to get Sarah to the church today. It's amazing what a pair of handcuffs can do. The Bridesmaids look beautiful, outdone only by our stunning bride.
"I would like to pay special tribute to John and Sarah's parents. They have helped make this a very special day. Can I also say how beautiful both mom's look, they are simply divine."
Once you have finished your first draft of the speech, it's time to take a rest. Put the speech down and forget about it for a day or two. First, you need a rest. But second, your critical eyes will function much better in the cold light of day. You will be amazed at how much your speech will improve when you go from first to second to third draft - but only if you leave time between each draft.
There is no scientific way to know when you have reached your speech's final draft, but here is a good indication: If you find yourself broadly happy with the speech and find yourself making minor changes from draft to draft, it's time to stop.
< Final version
Preparing to make a speech >>
How to deliver a speech
It's time to commence your public speaking career and deliver a speech in public. You're probably nervous now, but that's okay. There is much preparation you can do that will put your mind at ease and make your public speaking event a comfortable, even enjoyable, day.
You have already learnt how to write a speech. Hopefully you now have a speech with which you are happy. This set of exercises will take you from nervous speechwriter to successful speechmaker.
It's time to lose your novice public speaker wings.
MAP PROJECTION is any method of representing the surface of a sphere or other shape on a plane. Map projections are necessary for creating maps. All map projections distort the surface in some fashion. Depending on the purpose of the map, some distortions are acceptable and others are not; therefore different map projections exist in order to preserve some properties of the sphere-like body at the expense of other properties. There is no limit to the number of possible map projections.
Metric properties of maps
An Albers projection shows areas accurately, but distorts shapes.
Many properties can be measured on the Earth's surface independently of its geography. Some of these properties are:
* Area
* Shape
* Direction
* Bearing
* Distance
* Scale
Map projections can be constructed to preserve one or more of these properties, though not all of them simultaneously. Each projection preserves or compromises or approximates basic metric properties in different ways. The purpose of the map determines which projection should form the base for the map. Because many purposes exist for maps, many projections have been created to suit those purposes.
Another major concern that drives the choice of a projection is the compatibility of data sets. Data sets are geographic information. As such, their collection depends on the chosen model of the Earth. Different models assign slightly different coordinates to the same location, so it is important that the model be known and that the chosen projection be compatible with that model. On small areas (large scale) data compatibility issues are more important since metric distortions are minimal at this level. In very large areas (small scale), on the other hand, distortion is a more important factor to consider.
[edit] Construction of a map projection
The creation of a map projection involves three steps:
1. Selection of a model for the shape of the Earth or planetary body (usually choosing between a sphere or ellipsoid). Because the Earth's actual shape is irregular, information is lost in this step.
2. Transformation of geographic coordinates (longitude and latitude) to plane coordinates (eastings and northings or x,y)
3. Reduction of the scale (it does not matter in what order the second and third steps are performed)
Most map projections are not "projections" in any physical sense. Rather, they depend on mathematical formulae that have no direct physical interpretation. However, in understanding the concept of a map projection it can be helpful to think of a globe with a light source placed at some definite point relative to it, projecting features of the globe onto a surface. The following discussion of developable surfaces is based on that concept.
[edit] Choosing a projection surface
A Miller cylindrical projection maps the globe onto a cylinder.
A surface that can be unfolded or unrolled into a plane or sheet without stretching, tearing or shrinking is called a developable surface. The cylinder, cone and of course the plane are all developable surfaces. The sphere and ellipsoid are not developable surfaces. As noted in the introduction, any projection of a sphere (or an ellipsoid) onto a plane will have to distort the image. (To compare, you cannot flatten an orange peel without tearing or warping it.)
One way of describing a projection is first to project from the Earth's surface to a developable surface such as a cylinder or cone, and then to unroll the surface into a plane. While the first step inevitably distorts some properties of the globe, the developable surface can then be unfolded without further distortion.
Choosing a model for the shape of the Earth
Projection construction is also affected by how the shape of the Earth is approximated. In the following discussion on projection categories, a sphere is assumed. However, the Earth is not exactly spherical but is closer in shape to an oblate ellipsoid, a shape which bulges around the equator. Selecting a model for a shape of the Earth involves choosing between the advantages and disadvantages of a sphere versus an ellipsoid. Spherical models are useful for small-scale maps such as world atlases and globes, since the error at that scale is not usually noticeable or important enough to justify using the more complicated ellipsoid. The ellipsoidal model is commonly used to construct topographic maps and for other large and medium scale maps that need to accurately depict the land surface.
A third model of the shape of the Earth is called a geoid, which is a complex and more or less accurate representation of the global mean sea level surface that is obtained through a combination of terrestrial and satellite gravity measurements. This model is not used for mapping due to its complexity but is instead used for control purposes in the construction of geographic datums. (In geodesy, plural of "datum" is "datums" rather than "data".) A geoid is used to construct a datum by adding irregularities to the ellipsoid in order better to match the Earth's actual shape (it takes into account the large scale features in the Earth's gravity field associated with mantle convection patterns, as well as the gravity signatures of very large geomorphic features such as mountain ranges, plateaus and plains). Historically, datums have been based on ellipsoids that best represent the geoid within the region the datum is intended to map. Each ellipsoid has a distinct major and minor axis. Different controls (modifications) are added to the ellipsoid in order to construct the datum, which is specialized for a specific geographic regions (such as the North American Datum). A few modern datums, such as WGS84 (the one used in the Global Positioning System GPS), are optimized to represent the entire earth as well as possible with a single ellipsoid, at the expense of some accuracy in smaller regions.
[edit] Classification
A fundamental projection classification is based on the type of projection surface onto which the globe is conceptually projected. The projections are described in terms of placing a gigantic surface in contact with the earth, followed by an implied scaling operation. These surfaces are cylindrical (e.g. Mercator), conic (e.g., Albers), or azimuthal or plane (e.g. stereographic). Many mathematical projections, however, do not neatly fit into any of these three conceptual projection methods. Hence other peer categories have been described in the literature, such as pseudoconic (meridians are arcs of circles), pseudocylindrical (meridians are straight lines), pseudoazimuthal, retroazimuthal, and polyconic.
Another way to classify projections is according to properties of the model they preserve. Some of the more common categories are:
* Preserving direction (azimuthal), a trait possible only from one or two points to every other point
* Preserving shape locally (conformal or orthomorphic)
* Preserving area (equal-area or equiareal or equivalent or authalic)
* Preserving distance (equidistant), a trait possible only between one or two points and every other point
* Preserving shortest route, a trait preserved only by the gnomonic projection
NOTE: Because the sphere is not a developable surface, it is impossible to construct a map projection that is both equal-area and conformal.
[edit] Projections by surface
[edit] Cylindrical
The space-oblique Mercator projection was developed by the USGS for use in Landsat images.
The term "cylindrical projection" is used to refer to any projection in which meridians are mapped to equally spaced vertical lines and circles of latitude (parallels) are mapped to horizontal lines (or, mutatis mutandis, more generally, radial lines from a fixed point are mapped to equally spaced parallel lines and concentric circles around it are mapped to perpendicular lines).
The mapping of meridians to vertical lines can be visualized by imagining a cylinder (of which the axis coincides with the Earth's axis of rotation) wrapped around the Earth and then projecting onto the cylinder, and subsequently unfolding the cylinder.
By the geometry of their construction, cylindrical projections stretch distances east-west. The amount of stretch is the same at any chosen latitude on all cylindrical projections, and is given by the secant of the latitude as a multiple of the equator's scale. The various cylindrical projections are distinguished from each other solely by their north-south stretching (where latitude is given by φ):
* North-south stretching is equal to the east-west stretching (secant φ): The east-west scale matches the north-south scale: conformal cylindrical or Mercator; this distorts areas excessively in high latitudes (see also transverse Mercator).
* North-south stretching growing rapidly with latitude, even faster than east-west stretching (secant² φ: The cylindric perspective (= central cylindrical) projection; unsuitable because distortion is even worse than in the Mercator projection.
* North-south stretching grows with latitude, but less quickly than the east-west stretching: such as the Miller cylindrical projection (secant[4φ/5]).
* North-south distances neither stretched nor compressed (1): equidistant cylindrical or plate carrée.
* North-south compression precisely the reciprocal of east-west stretching (cosine φ): equal-area cylindrical (with many named specializations such as Gall-Peters or Gall orthographic, Behrmann, and Lambert cylindrical equal-area). This divides north-south distances by a factor equal to the secant of the latitude, preserving area but heavily distorting shapes.
In the first case (Mercator), the east-west scale always equals the north-south scale. In the second case (central cylindrical), the north-south scale exceeds the east-west scale everywhere away from the equator. Each remaining case has a pair of identical latitudes of opposite sign (or else the equator) at which the east-west scale matches the north-south-scale.
Cylindrical projections map the whole Earth as a finite rectangle, except in the first two cases, where the rectangle stretches infinitely tall while retaining constant width.
[edit] Pseudocylindrical
A sinusoidal projection shows relative sizes accurately, but grossly distorts shapes. Distortion can be reduced by "interrupting" the map.
Pseudocylindrical projections represent the central meridian and each parallel as a single straight line segment, but not the other meridians. Each pseudocylindrical projection represents a point on the Earth along the straight line representing its parallel, at a distance which is a function of its difference in longitude from the central meridian.
* Sinusoidal: the north-south scale and the east-west scale are the same throughout the map, creating an equal-area map. On the map, as in reality, the length of each parallel is proportional to the cosine of the latitude. Thus the shape of the map for the whole earth is the region between two symmetric rotated cosine curves.[1]
The true distance between two points on the same meridian corresponds to the distance on the map between the two parallels, which is smaller than the distance between the two points on the map. The true distance between two points on the same parallel – and the true area of shapes on the map – are not distorted. The meridians drawn on the map help the user to realize the shape distortion and mentally compensate for it.
* Collignon projection, which in its most common forms represents each meridian as 2 straight line segments, one from each pole to the equator.
* Mollweide
* Goode homolosine
* Eckert IV
* Eckert VI
* Kavrayskiy VII
* Tobler hyperelliptical
[edit] Hybrid
The HEALPix projection combines an equal-area cylindrical projection in equatorial regions with the Collignon projection in polar areas.
[edit] Conical
* Equidistant conic
* Lambert conformal conic
* Albers conic
[edit] Pseudoconical
* Bonne
* Werner cordiform designates a pole and a meridian; distances from the pole are preserved, as are distances from the meridian (which is straight) along the parallels
* Continuous American polyconic
[edit] Azimuthal (projections onto a plane)
An azimuthal projection shows distances and directions accurately from the center point, but distorts shapes and sizes elsewhere.
Azimuthal projections have the property that directions from a central point are preserved (and hence, great circles through the central point are represented by straight lines on the map). Usually these projections also have radial symmetry in the scales and hence in the distortions: map distances from the central point are computed by a function r(d) of the true distance d, independent of the angle; correspondingly, circles with the central point as center are mapped into circles which have as center the central point on the map.
The mapping of radial lines can be visualized by imagining a plane tangent to the Earth, with the central point as tangent point.
The radial scale is r'(d) and the transverse scale r(d)/(R sin(d/R)) where R is the radius of the Earth.
Some azimuthal projections are true perspective projections; that is, they can be constructed mechanically, projecting the surface of the Earth by extending lines from a points of perspective (along an infinite line through the tangent point and the tangent point's antipode) onto the plane:
* The gnomonic projection displays great circles as straight lines. Can be constructed by using a point of perspective at the center of the Earth. r(d) = c tan(d/R); a hemisphere already requires an infinite map,[2][3]
* The General Perspective Projection can be constructed by using a point of perspective outside the earth. Photographs of Earth (such as those from the International Space Station) give this perspective.
* The orthographic projection maps each point on the earth to the closest point on the plane. Can be constructed from a point of perspective an infinite distance from the tangent point; r(d) = c sin(d/R).[4] Can display up to a hemisphere on a finite circle. Photographs of Earth from far enough away, such as the Moon, give this perspective.
* The azimuthal conformal projection, also known as the stereographic projection, can be constructed by using the tangent point's antipode as the point of perspective. r(d) = c tan(d/2R); the scale is c/(2R cos²(d/2R)).[5] Can display nearly the entire sphere on a finite circle. The full sphere requires an infinite map.
Other azimuthal projections are not true perspective projections:
* Azimuthal equidistant: r(d) = cd; it is used by amateur radio operators to know the direction to point their antennas toward a point and see the distance to it. Distance from the tangent point on the map is proportional to surface distance on the earth (;[6] for the case where the tangent point is the North Pole, see the flag of the United Nations)
* Lambert azimuthal equal-area. Distance from the tangent point on the map is proportional to straight-line distance through the earth: r(d) = c sin(d/2R)[7]
* Logarithmic azimuthal is constructed so that each point's distance from the center of the map is the logarithm of its distance from the tangent point on the Earth. Works well with cognitive maps[citation needed]. r(d) = c ln(d/d0); locations closer than at a distance equal to the constant d0 are not shown (,[8] figure 6-5)
[edit] Projections by preservation of a metric property
A stereographic projection is conformal and perspective but not equal area or equidistant.
[edit] Conformal
Conformal map projections preserve angles locally:
* Mercator - rhumb lines are represented by straight segments
* Stereographic - shape of circles is conserved
* Roussilhe
* Lambert conformal conic
* Quincuncial map
* Adams hemisphere-in-a-square projection
* Guyou hemisphere-in-a-square projection
[edit] Equal-area
The equal-area Mollweide projection
These projections preserve area:
* Gall orthographic (also known as Gall-Peters, or Peters, projection)
* Albers conic
* Lambert azimuthal equal-area
* Mollweide
* Hammer
* Briesemeister
* Sinusoidal
* Werner
* Bonne
* Bottomley
* Goode's homolosine
* Hobo-Dyer
* Collignon
* Tobler hyperelliptical
[edit] Equidistant
A two-point equidistant projection of Asia
These preserve distance from some standard point or line:
* Plate carrée - distances along meridians are conserved
* Equirectangular - a Plate carrée centered at the equator.
* Azimuthal equidistant - distances along great circles radiating from centre are conserved
* Equidistant conic
* Sinusoidal - distances along parallels are conserved
* Werner cordiform distances from the North Pole are correct as are the curved distance on parallels
* Soldner
* Two-point equidistant: two "control points" are arbitrarily chosen by the map maker. Distance from any point on the map to each control point is proportional to surface distance on the earth.
[edit] Gnomonic
The Gnomonic projection is thought to be the oldest map projection, developed by Thales in the 6th century BC
Great circles are displayed as straight lines:
* Gnomonic projection
[edit] Retroazimuthal
Direction to a fixed location B (the bearing at the starting location A of the shortest route) corresponds to the direction on the map from A to B:
* Littrow - the only conformal retroazimuthal projection
* Hammer retroazimuthal - also preserves distance from the central point
* Craig retroazimuthal aka Mecca or Qibla - also has vertical meridians
[edit] Compromise projections
The Robinson projection was adopted by National Geographic Magazine in 1988 but abandoned by them in about 1997 for the Winkel Tripel.
Compromise projections give up the idea of perfectly preserving metric properties, seeking instead to strike a balance between distortions, or to simply make things "look right". Most of these types of projections distort shape in the polar regions more than at the equator:
* Robinson
* van der Grinten
* Miller cylindrical
* Winkel Tripel
* Buckminster Fuller's Dymaxion
* B.J.S. Cahill's Butterfly Map
* Steve Waterman's Butterfly Map
* Kavrayskiy VII
* Wagner VI
[edit] Other noteworthy projections
Metric properties of maps
An Albers projection shows areas accurately, but distorts shapes.
Many properties can be measured on the Earth's surface independently of its geography. Some of these properties are:
* Area
* Shape
* Direction
* Bearing
* Distance
* Scale
Map projections can be constructed to preserve one or more of these properties, though not all of them simultaneously. Each projection preserves or compromises or approximates basic metric properties in different ways. The purpose of the map determines which projection should form the base for the map. Because many purposes exist for maps, many projections have been created to suit those purposes.
Another major concern that drives the choice of a projection is the compatibility of data sets. Data sets are geographic information. As such, their collection depends on the chosen model of the Earth. Different models assign slightly different coordinates to the same location, so it is important that the model be known and that the chosen projection be compatible with that model. On small areas (large scale) data compatibility issues are more important since metric distortions are minimal at this level. In very large areas (small scale), on the other hand, distortion is a more important factor to consider.
[edit] Construction of a map projection
The creation of a map projection involves three steps:
1. Selection of a model for the shape of the Earth or planetary body (usually choosing between a sphere or ellipsoid). Because the Earth's actual shape is irregular, information is lost in this step.
2. Transformation of geographic coordinates (longitude and latitude) to plane coordinates (eastings and northings or x,y)
3. Reduction of the scale (it does not matter in what order the second and third steps are performed)
Most map projections are not "projections" in any physical sense. Rather, they depend on mathematical formulae that have no direct physical interpretation. However, in understanding the concept of a map projection it can be helpful to think of a globe with a light source placed at some definite point relative to it, projecting features of the globe onto a surface. The following discussion of developable surfaces is based on that concept.
[edit] Choosing a projection surface
A Miller cylindrical projection maps the globe onto a cylinder.
A surface that can be unfolded or unrolled into a plane or sheet without stretching, tearing or shrinking is called a developable surface. The cylinder, cone and of course the plane are all developable surfaces. The sphere and ellipsoid are not developable surfaces. As noted in the introduction, any projection of a sphere (or an ellipsoid) onto a plane will have to distort the image. (To compare, you cannot flatten an orange peel without tearing or warping it.)
One way of describing a projection is first to project from the Earth's surface to a developable surface such as a cylinder or cone, and then to unroll the surface into a plane. While the first step inevitably distorts some properties of the globe, the developable surface can then be unfolded without further distortion.
Choosing a model for the shape of the Earth
Projection construction is also affected by how the shape of the Earth is approximated. In the following discussion on projection categories, a sphere is assumed. However, the Earth is not exactly spherical but is closer in shape to an oblate ellipsoid, a shape which bulges around the equator. Selecting a model for a shape of the Earth involves choosing between the advantages and disadvantages of a sphere versus an ellipsoid. Spherical models are useful for small-scale maps such as world atlases and globes, since the error at that scale is not usually noticeable or important enough to justify using the more complicated ellipsoid. The ellipsoidal model is commonly used to construct topographic maps and for other large and medium scale maps that need to accurately depict the land surface.
A third model of the shape of the Earth is called a geoid, which is a complex and more or less accurate representation of the global mean sea level surface that is obtained through a combination of terrestrial and satellite gravity measurements. This model is not used for mapping due to its complexity but is instead used for control purposes in the construction of geographic datums. (In geodesy, plural of "datum" is "datums" rather than "data".) A geoid is used to construct a datum by adding irregularities to the ellipsoid in order better to match the Earth's actual shape (it takes into account the large scale features in the Earth's gravity field associated with mantle convection patterns, as well as the gravity signatures of very large geomorphic features such as mountain ranges, plateaus and plains). Historically, datums have been based on ellipsoids that best represent the geoid within the region the datum is intended to map. Each ellipsoid has a distinct major and minor axis. Different controls (modifications) are added to the ellipsoid in order to construct the datum, which is specialized for a specific geographic regions (such as the North American Datum). A few modern datums, such as WGS84 (the one used in the Global Positioning System GPS), are optimized to represent the entire earth as well as possible with a single ellipsoid, at the expense of some accuracy in smaller regions.
[edit] Classification
A fundamental projection classification is based on the type of projection surface onto which the globe is conceptually projected. The projections are described in terms of placing a gigantic surface in contact with the earth, followed by an implied scaling operation. These surfaces are cylindrical (e.g. Mercator), conic (e.g., Albers), or azimuthal or plane (e.g. stereographic). Many mathematical projections, however, do not neatly fit into any of these three conceptual projection methods. Hence other peer categories have been described in the literature, such as pseudoconic (meridians are arcs of circles), pseudocylindrical (meridians are straight lines), pseudoazimuthal, retroazimuthal, and polyconic.
Another way to classify projections is according to properties of the model they preserve. Some of the more common categories are:
* Preserving direction (azimuthal), a trait possible only from one or two points to every other point
* Preserving shape locally (conformal or orthomorphic)
* Preserving area (equal-area or equiareal or equivalent or authalic)
* Preserving distance (equidistant), a trait possible only between one or two points and every other point
* Preserving shortest route, a trait preserved only by the gnomonic projection
NOTE: Because the sphere is not a developable surface, it is impossible to construct a map projection that is both equal-area and conformal.
[edit] Projections by surface
[edit] Cylindrical
The space-oblique Mercator projection was developed by the USGS for use in Landsat images.
The term "cylindrical projection" is used to refer to any projection in which meridians are mapped to equally spaced vertical lines and circles of latitude (parallels) are mapped to horizontal lines (or, mutatis mutandis, more generally, radial lines from a fixed point are mapped to equally spaced parallel lines and concentric circles around it are mapped to perpendicular lines).
The mapping of meridians to vertical lines can be visualized by imagining a cylinder (of which the axis coincides with the Earth's axis of rotation) wrapped around the Earth and then projecting onto the cylinder, and subsequently unfolding the cylinder.
By the geometry of their construction, cylindrical projections stretch distances east-west. The amount of stretch is the same at any chosen latitude on all cylindrical projections, and is given by the secant of the latitude as a multiple of the equator's scale. The various cylindrical projections are distinguished from each other solely by their north-south stretching (where latitude is given by φ):
* North-south stretching is equal to the east-west stretching (secant φ): The east-west scale matches the north-south scale: conformal cylindrical or Mercator; this distorts areas excessively in high latitudes (see also transverse Mercator).
* North-south stretching growing rapidly with latitude, even faster than east-west stretching (secant² φ: The cylindric perspective (= central cylindrical) projection; unsuitable because distortion is even worse than in the Mercator projection.
* North-south stretching grows with latitude, but less quickly than the east-west stretching: such as the Miller cylindrical projection (secant[4φ/5]).
* North-south distances neither stretched nor compressed (1): equidistant cylindrical or plate carrée.
* North-south compression precisely the reciprocal of east-west stretching (cosine φ): equal-area cylindrical (with many named specializations such as Gall-Peters or Gall orthographic, Behrmann, and Lambert cylindrical equal-area). This divides north-south distances by a factor equal to the secant of the latitude, preserving area but heavily distorting shapes.
In the first case (Mercator), the east-west scale always equals the north-south scale. In the second case (central cylindrical), the north-south scale exceeds the east-west scale everywhere away from the equator. Each remaining case has a pair of identical latitudes of opposite sign (or else the equator) at which the east-west scale matches the north-south-scale.
Cylindrical projections map the whole Earth as a finite rectangle, except in the first two cases, where the rectangle stretches infinitely tall while retaining constant width.
[edit] Pseudocylindrical
A sinusoidal projection shows relative sizes accurately, but grossly distorts shapes. Distortion can be reduced by "interrupting" the map.
Pseudocylindrical projections represent the central meridian and each parallel as a single straight line segment, but not the other meridians. Each pseudocylindrical projection represents a point on the Earth along the straight line representing its parallel, at a distance which is a function of its difference in longitude from the central meridian.
* Sinusoidal: the north-south scale and the east-west scale are the same throughout the map, creating an equal-area map. On the map, as in reality, the length of each parallel is proportional to the cosine of the latitude. Thus the shape of the map for the whole earth is the region between two symmetric rotated cosine curves.[1]
The true distance between two points on the same meridian corresponds to the distance on the map between the two parallels, which is smaller than the distance between the two points on the map. The true distance between two points on the same parallel – and the true area of shapes on the map – are not distorted. The meridians drawn on the map help the user to realize the shape distortion and mentally compensate for it.
* Collignon projection, which in its most common forms represents each meridian as 2 straight line segments, one from each pole to the equator.
* Mollweide
* Goode homolosine
* Eckert IV
* Eckert VI
* Kavrayskiy VII
* Tobler hyperelliptical
[edit] Hybrid
The HEALPix projection combines an equal-area cylindrical projection in equatorial regions with the Collignon projection in polar areas.
[edit] Conical
* Equidistant conic
* Lambert conformal conic
* Albers conic
[edit] Pseudoconical
* Bonne
* Werner cordiform designates a pole and a meridian; distances from the pole are preserved, as are distances from the meridian (which is straight) along the parallels
* Continuous American polyconic
[edit] Azimuthal (projections onto a plane)
An azimuthal projection shows distances and directions accurately from the center point, but distorts shapes and sizes elsewhere.
Azimuthal projections have the property that directions from a central point are preserved (and hence, great circles through the central point are represented by straight lines on the map). Usually these projections also have radial symmetry in the scales and hence in the distortions: map distances from the central point are computed by a function r(d) of the true distance d, independent of the angle; correspondingly, circles with the central point as center are mapped into circles which have as center the central point on the map.
The mapping of radial lines can be visualized by imagining a plane tangent to the Earth, with the central point as tangent point.
The radial scale is r'(d) and the transverse scale r(d)/(R sin(d/R)) where R is the radius of the Earth.
Some azimuthal projections are true perspective projections; that is, they can be constructed mechanically, projecting the surface of the Earth by extending lines from a points of perspective (along an infinite line through the tangent point and the tangent point's antipode) onto the plane:
* The gnomonic projection displays great circles as straight lines. Can be constructed by using a point of perspective at the center of the Earth. r(d) = c tan(d/R); a hemisphere already requires an infinite map,[2][3]
* The General Perspective Projection can be constructed by using a point of perspective outside the earth. Photographs of Earth (such as those from the International Space Station) give this perspective.
* The orthographic projection maps each point on the earth to the closest point on the plane. Can be constructed from a point of perspective an infinite distance from the tangent point; r(d) = c sin(d/R).[4] Can display up to a hemisphere on a finite circle. Photographs of Earth from far enough away, such as the Moon, give this perspective.
* The azimuthal conformal projection, also known as the stereographic projection, can be constructed by using the tangent point's antipode as the point of perspective. r(d) = c tan(d/2R); the scale is c/(2R cos²(d/2R)).[5] Can display nearly the entire sphere on a finite circle. The full sphere requires an infinite map.
Other azimuthal projections are not true perspective projections:
* Azimuthal equidistant: r(d) = cd; it is used by amateur radio operators to know the direction to point their antennas toward a point and see the distance to it. Distance from the tangent point on the map is proportional to surface distance on the earth (;[6] for the case where the tangent point is the North Pole, see the flag of the United Nations)
* Lambert azimuthal equal-area. Distance from the tangent point on the map is proportional to straight-line distance through the earth: r(d) = c sin(d/2R)[7]
* Logarithmic azimuthal is constructed so that each point's distance from the center of the map is the logarithm of its distance from the tangent point on the Earth. Works well with cognitive maps[citation needed]. r(d) = c ln(d/d0); locations closer than at a distance equal to the constant d0 are not shown (,[8] figure 6-5)
[edit] Projections by preservation of a metric property
A stereographic projection is conformal and perspective but not equal area or equidistant.
[edit] Conformal
Conformal map projections preserve angles locally:
* Mercator - rhumb lines are represented by straight segments
* Stereographic - shape of circles is conserved
* Roussilhe
* Lambert conformal conic
* Quincuncial map
* Adams hemisphere-in-a-square projection
* Guyou hemisphere-in-a-square projection
[edit] Equal-area
The equal-area Mollweide projection
These projections preserve area:
* Gall orthographic (also known as Gall-Peters, or Peters, projection)
* Albers conic
* Lambert azimuthal equal-area
* Mollweide
* Hammer
* Briesemeister
* Sinusoidal
* Werner
* Bonne
* Bottomley
* Goode's homolosine
* Hobo-Dyer
* Collignon
* Tobler hyperelliptical
[edit] Equidistant
A two-point equidistant projection of Asia
These preserve distance from some standard point or line:
* Plate carrée - distances along meridians are conserved
* Equirectangular - a Plate carrée centered at the equator.
* Azimuthal equidistant - distances along great circles radiating from centre are conserved
* Equidistant conic
* Sinusoidal - distances along parallels are conserved
* Werner cordiform distances from the North Pole are correct as are the curved distance on parallels
* Soldner
* Two-point equidistant: two "control points" are arbitrarily chosen by the map maker. Distance from any point on the map to each control point is proportional to surface distance on the earth.
[edit] Gnomonic
The Gnomonic projection is thought to be the oldest map projection, developed by Thales in the 6th century BC
Great circles are displayed as straight lines:
* Gnomonic projection
[edit] Retroazimuthal
Direction to a fixed location B (the bearing at the starting location A of the shortest route) corresponds to the direction on the map from A to B:
* Littrow - the only conformal retroazimuthal projection
* Hammer retroazimuthal - also preserves distance from the central point
* Craig retroazimuthal aka Mecca or Qibla - also has vertical meridians
[edit] Compromise projections
The Robinson projection was adopted by National Geographic Magazine in 1988 but abandoned by them in about 1997 for the Winkel Tripel.
Compromise projections give up the idea of perfectly preserving metric properties, seeking instead to strike a balance between distortions, or to simply make things "look right". Most of these types of projections distort shape in the polar regions more than at the equator:
* Robinson
* van der Grinten
* Miller cylindrical
* Winkel Tripel
* Buckminster Fuller's Dymaxion
* B.J.S. Cahill's Butterfly Map
* Steve Waterman's Butterfly Map
* Kavrayskiy VII
* Wagner VI
[edit] Other noteworthy projections
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